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| ==Intrinsic/Extrinsic Motivation and Creativity== | ==Intrinsic/Extrinsic Motivation and Creativity== | ||
| - | The term '''motivation''' has been defined as | + | The term '''motivation''' has been defined as a force that drives behaviour towards a specific goal to achieve unmet needs. <ref name="Williams"> Williams, R. (2012). How to motivate employees. Retrieved February 12, 2013, from http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/wired-success/201210/how-motivate-employees.</ref> From this definition, we understand that motivation is a psychological construct that moves us into action in order to achieve a goal. |
| - | Motivation can be broken down | + | Motivation can further be broken down into two distinct types: intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. '''Intrinsic''' motivation is described as, “any motivation that arises from the individual’s positive reactions to the qualities of the task itself” <ref name="Hon">Hon, A. H. Y. (2012). Shaping environments conductive to creativity: The role of intrinsic motivation. Cornell Hospitality Quarterly, 53(1), 53-64. doi: 10.1177/1938965511424725</ref>. Put more simply, intrinsic motivation can be described as motivation that comes from within us, without any outside influences. In contrast, '''extrinsic''' motivation is engaging in an activity in order to achieve an separate outcome or instrumental reward. <ref name="RyanDeci">Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions and new directions. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25(1), 54-67. doi: 10.1006/ceps.1999.1020</ref> Therefore, the motivation is coming from a source of motivation is coming from outside of the individual. |
| - | '''Creativity''' is a construct that is defined as, “a set of capacities enabling a person to behave in new and adaptive ways in given contexts.” <ref name="MouchiroudLubart">Mouchiroud, C., & Lubart, T. (2002). Social creativity: A cross-sectional study of 6- to 11-year-old children. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 26(1), 60-69.</ref> This tells us that creativity involves new, original ideas | + | '''Creativity''' is a construct that is defined as, “a set of capacities enabling a person to behave in new and adaptive ways in given contexts.” <ref name="MouchiroudLubart">Mouchiroud, C., & Lubart, T. (2002). Social creativity: A cross-sectional study of 6- to 11-year-old children. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 26(1), 60-69.</ref> This tells us that creativity involves new, original ideas & behaviours and then using them in non-conventional ways. |
| - | Intrinsic motivation and creativity are related to each other. Specifically, | + | Intrinsic motivation and creativity are related to each other. Specifically, creativity is greater if one is intrinsically motivated on a task. <ref name="AmabileKramer">Amabile, T. M., & Kramer, S. (2012). What doesn't motivate creativity can kill it. Retrieved February 12, 2013, from http://blogs.hbr.org/cs/2012/04/balancing_the_four_factors_tha_1.html</ref><ref name="HAM">Hennessey, B. A., Amabile, T. M., & Martinage, M. (1989). Immunizing children against the negative effects of reward. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 14(3), 212-227. doi: 10.1016/0361-476X(89)90011-8</ref><ref name="Hon" /><ref name="LGN">Lepper, M. R., Greene, D., & Nisbett, R. E. (1973). Undermining children's intrinsic interest with extrinsic reward: A test of the 'overjustification' hypothesis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 28(1), 129-137. doi: 10.1037/h0035519</ref><ref name="RyanDeci" /><ref name="SNKT">Selart, M., Nordström, T., Kuvaas, B., & Takemura, K. (2008). Effects of reward on self-regulation, intrinsic motivation and creativity. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 52(5), 439-458. doi: 10.1080/00313830802346314</ref>. Intuitively, this is a logical connection. As Selart et al. (2008)<ref name="SNKT" /> state, “Intrinsic motivation encompasses exploration, spontaneity, autonomy and interest in one’s surroundings.” Those various characteristics that encompass intrinsic motivation are characteristics that will also help foster creativity in general. |
| ==Motivation and Creativity: The overjustification hypothesis== | ==Motivation and Creativity: The overjustification hypothesis== | ||
| [[Image:Boytest.jpg|thumbnail|Boy taking a test, low intrinsic motivation, low thinking/creativity]] | [[Image:Boytest.jpg|thumbnail|Boy taking a test, low intrinsic motivation, low thinking/creativity]] | ||
| - | To relate | + | To relate motivation and the education system (i.e., creativity in the education system), research in psychology suggests that the education system stifles creativity. A psychological theory termed the '''overjustification hypothesis''' explains the relationship between intrinsic/extrinsic motivation and future interest/motivation on that topic. The hypothesis states that when extrinsic motivators are applied to activities that were previously done for intrinsic reasons, than the intrinsic motivation for those activities will be decreased in the future. <ref name="LGN" /> Having lowered intrinsic motivation through extrinsic rewards would, in turn, lower creativity. |
| - | + | Within the education system, extrinsic rewards are nearly inescapable due to the standards of grading that must be applied (i.e., teachers must apply grades to school work in order to provide feedback and determine if the student “passes” the requirements of that course) in order to measure academic achievement and success. However, it is the system of grading that leads students to become disinterested and less creative in their work. | |
| - | The research supporting the overjustification hypothesis is extensive | + | The research supporting ''the overjustification hypothesis'' is extensive, as there are many studies, across many different age groups that have shown relatively consistent results. A classic study that is often cited, by Lepper et al. (1973)<ref name="LGN" /> was conducted with children completing a drawing activity. The results had shown that children in the “expected reward” condition had shown less future intrinsic interest on that activity compared to children in the “no reward” condition and “unexpected reward” condition <ref name="LGN" />. The results further suggested that the “expected reward” condition group had less creative drawings than the other conditions <ref name="LGN" />. In the real world, this means that when people are given rewards for tasks they previously had done for interest, then the reward becomes attached to the tasks and the individual will no longer complete the task in the absence of a reward. These findings have been replicated in other groups of children <ref name="HAM" />, in college & university students <ref name="SarafinoDiMattia">Sarafino, E. P., & DiMattia, P. A. (1978). Does grading undermine intrinsic interest in a college course? Journal of Educational Psychology, 70(6), 916-921. doi: 10.1037/0022-0663.70.6.916</ref><ref name="SNKT" />, and even in work environments <ref name="Hon" />. |
| ==How to Increase Intrinsic Motivation== | ==How to Increase Intrinsic Motivation== | ||
| - | There are a number of ways to increase intrinsic motivation ( | + | There are a number of ways to increase intrinsic motivation (consequently, will increase creativity). First, give extrinsic rewards unexpectedly, not consistently <ref name="AmabileKramer" />. When extrinsic motivators are expected, it will automatically decrease intrinsic motivation, achievement, and creativity. Second, appeal to the values of the person you are trying to motivate, rather than trying to get them to conform to your values, methods, or techniques <ref name="Reiss">Reiss, S. (2012). How to motivate someone. Retrieved February 12, 2013, from http://www.huffingtonpost.com/steven-reiss-phd/motivation-tips_b_1533533.html </ref>. For example, a student is not interested in intellectual knowledge but they are interested in life skills, so orient and explain the task so it appeals to life skill values <ref name="Reiss" />. |
| Line 111: | Line 111: | ||
| #Interesting for the participant | #Interesting for the participant | ||
| #Facilitates learning | #Facilitates learning | ||
| - | #Creates “flow” ( | + | #Creates “flow” (See "flow" section below) |
| #Has significance/purpose to the individual | #Has significance/purpose to the individual | ||
| - | Finally, | + | Finally, flow is described as being completely focused on the task we are working on and find it easy to perform at peak performance, while accompanied by feelings of pleasure and satisfaction. <ref name="McGuiness1">McGuinness, M. (2006). Creative flow. Retrieved February 12, 2013, from http://www.wishfulthinking.co.uk/2006/04/24/creative-flow/</ref>. This occurs when there are clear goals, immediate constructive feedback (NOT grading or pressure), when the challenge is equal to skill, there are no distractions, the individual is not worried about failing, the task it autotelic (i.e., enjoyable in itself), and individual is not self-conscious about their task performance. With those methods for “flow” in mind, creating an activity that will facilitate intrinsic motivation and flow will create better quality work, more original ideas and overall positive effects on work <ref name="McGuiness1" />. |
| == Additional Resources== | == Additional Resources== | ||
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Creativity in Education
Creativity in Children with Learning Disabilities
- “The creativity of the future will be found in tomorrows adults"[1] . Tomorrows adults are today’s students and surprisingly a significant amount of today’s students have a learning disability of some form. However, there is a negative stigma for children with learning disabilities; often they are viewed as being unintelligent, when this is not the case. Children with learning disabilities may struggle in areas that children without a disability may excel in[2] . Children with learning disabilities can excel in other areas and often have high intelligence regardless of weaknesses they may demonstrate with regards to reading and writing[2]. Students with learning disabilities account for half of students age 6-21[3]. This relates to the importance of creativity and how it should be stressed among students in today’s education system. It would be beneficial for all students to harness their creativity, but it may be particularly helpful for the large number of students with learning disabilities. Contrary to common belief, often the brightest students in the class are not the most creative which may show that intelligence is not the main source of creativity[1]. Steffenhagen[2] states that learning disabilities can actually help give birth to creative thinking. By harnessing energy and thinking patterns that are prominent in students with attention deficit disorderADDcreativity and divergent thinking can be born[4].Crosbie[5]insists that students with learning disabilities such as ADD should be seen as gifted. If schools were less formal and more open to promoting creativity and multi-tasking in the forms of creative energy, learning disabled children would be at an advantage[5]. Children with learning disabilities like ADD are seen as hyperactive and distracted. While hyperactivity is only what is seen on the outside of children with ADD. Sometimes it is not understood that children with ADD tend to be multi-thinkers, they think much faster then children without ADD[5]. In a study by Shondrick et al[6]it was found that students who have learning disabilities often have less developed social skills then children without a learning disability. Shondrick et al[6] believes that creativity is related to interpersonal problem solving skills, and can be measured by fluency and flexibility interestingly, children with learning disabilities score, equally to children without learning disabilities with regards to interpersonal problem solving skills. Eisen[7]by measuring creativity visually, children with learning disabilities actually outperform children without learning disabilities. This is important because it shows that these children are creative but need to display their creativity in different ways, such as visually as opposed to in writing.
- A difficulty for students with learning disabilities is the negative stigma that coincides with having a disability[2]. Teachers and parents need to try to reduce the negative stigma in the classroom and among peers that goes along with having a learning disability, so that students will feel more free to explore their creativity. Learning-disabled children often feel singled out from mainstream students, and can find it difficult to be creative for fear of being seen as even more different from the other students[8]. This leads to students starting to see success as being unattainable and will stop trying to be successful[8]. Children who have learning disabilities are entitled to learning support within their classrooms[4]. In order to ensure this happens teachers can help students to make their own academic goals, and work towards achieving them through a modified learning program[4]. Scofield[1] explains that if teachers were to encourage students to explore and be curious while taking various approaches to problems and promoting trial and error, students would become more in touch with their creative side. Teachers need to feel free to let their students attempt to solve problems using various approaches, and allow students to struggle with problems in order to foster creativity[1]. For instance, Brady[9] discusses schools that offer drama and theatre programs for students with learning disabilities where these classes help students to harness their energy and focus it. Children with learning disabilities need to be placed in an environment that will enhance creative thinking and encourage alternate approaches to solving problems[10].Teachers who are educated on the importance of creativity and have knowledge of how to enhance learning for disabled children can make a difference in the futures adults by encouraging creativity in all students.
Learning Pace within an Elementary Curriculum and Its Effect on Creativity
Learning Pace
When discussing the pace of learning, this notion can be described on two extreme ends of the spectrum. One end is when someone other than student (such as a teacher) controls the amount of time spent learning the material. [11] On this end of the spectrum, due dates are defined as strict and given before instruction begins - as most often in Western educational systems today. [11] The opposite end of the spectrum would look like the learner having independent control over the pace of instruction, without a time constraint or deadline. [11] Like any spectrum, there is a space between and in this case that is where the control of pace for instruction is discussed between the teacher and the student. [11]
It has been argued through many scholars, and researchers as well as strengthened through the use of data that children (specifically in elementary school) need more time in a school day, and more time in each subject in order to foster learning, understanding and creative learning. [12][13][14][15]
Curriculum Based Learning
Elementary schools in Ontario have left little time for children to find creative ways to express themselves and learn. Due to a hurried curriculum and an increased focus on academics, lessons are presented in quick chunks to cover more academic information, leaving children’s pace of learning rushed and unable to process or question the information they are receiving. [15] [14] Consequently, there are aspects of creativity that often do not fit well within the curriculum. This has to do with the fact that the organization of classes guarantee these children learn how to read, write and understand math, however, do not leave time in the school day to practice divergent and creative thinking – they must stick to a strict schedule in which questioning ideas is not accounted for. [14] Children are desperate for time to immerse themselves in creative activities and explore with no time constraints, or at least more than small chunks of time in which they can do this, [14] because when children have more time to explore content in depth, they can learn many skills and information which will help the student to excel in the future. [15]
Divergent Thinking
Divergent thinking can be defined as thinking that goes in many directions and generates a variety of ideas through the reorganization of information, innovative ways of thinking, and putting ideas into new patterns. [14] Divergent thinking is found to be a reliable and valid measure of the Torrance Test of Creativity. [14] The restrictions of the curriculum and the pressures to conform to a strict model create difficulties to practice divergent thinking, especially under the pressure of time. [14]
The education system and curriculum crushes the questions of "why?” and “how?” by focusing on strict and repetitious tasks on completing assignments and staying quiet and focused/ “on task” that is a constant part of a student’s day. These requirements discourage an individual from growing as a creative learner and becoming a divergent thinker. [13]
Children’s Readiness
Powell and Kusuma-Powell (2011)[16] state that, in order to accommodate student readiness for learning, teachers personalize learning by acknowledging content, product, and process by:
- Changing the level of dependence of learning activities (e.g., task complexity). An example of this would be a teacher dividing complex tasks into manageable chunks for students.
- Altering clarity of tasks which would aid students by giving deliberately vague instructions.
- Opening and extending the degree of structure within a learning activity. Depending upon the readiness of the students, a teacher can provide a visual organizer or have the students develop their own.
- Gathering small groups of students and teaching specific skills as needed
In a positive regard, when teachers know and understand their students on a deeper level, they can consider these factors and come to a more accurate conclusion with regards to individual readiness and conclude with a more focused instruction to a student's optimal zone for learning. [16]
Zone of Proximal Development
This can be defined as a child’s intellectual readiness for a given task or for the understanding of an abstract concept. [16] The zone of proximal development is an approach to investigating readiness, but in a very specific way which is the discrepancy between what the child is able to achieve on their own and what the child can achieve through the collaboration with an adult. [16]
Recommendations for the Future Pace of Educational Creativity
True learning takes time (to question, think divergently, to wonder) and to rush through this time in class is conflicting to the nature of children and their minds which can lead them down a path in which can only go downhill. [15] Some recommendations for the future of creativity in pacing classrooms conducive to creative thinking can include but are not limited to the following:
- Allow time for students to think about and develop their creative ideas [12]
- Allow students to have choices and some control of their education and learning experiences [12]
- Let everyone get involved, to show that supporting student ideas and solutions to problems and projects is beneficial to learning [12]
- Provide enough time for students so they have the ability to have discussions with others, investigate, fail, and succeed [12]
- Lastly, allow time for in-depth learning, investigation, and contemplation by reconstructing the curriculum and creating more time within the school day [15]
In addition, a step in the right direction is the implementation of schools such as Montessori Schoolsthat fosters the notion and finally understanding that many different ways children learn and at many different paces.
 Montessori Classroom |
 Montessori Art Classroom |
 Montessori Childrens Kitchen/Classroom |
 Children Collaborating In a Montessori Classroom |
Additional Resources
Ken Robinson's Insight on Changing Education Paradigms - something that the Montessori schools are aiming to do.
Creativity and Motivation
Intrinsic/Extrinsic Motivation and Creativity
The term motivation has been defined as a force that drives behaviour towards a specific goal to achieve unmet needs. [17] From this definition, we understand that motivation is a psychological construct that moves us into action in order to achieve a goal. Motivation can further be broken down into two distinct types: intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation is described as, “any motivation that arises from the individual’s positive reactions to the qualities of the task itself” [18]. Put more simply, intrinsic motivation can be described as motivation that comes from within us, without any outside influences. In contrast, extrinsic motivation is engaging in an activity in order to achieve an separate outcome or instrumental reward. [19] Therefore, the motivation is coming from a source of motivation is coming from outside of the individual.
Creativity is a construct that is defined as, “a set of capacities enabling a person to behave in new and adaptive ways in given contexts.” [20] This tells us that creativity involves new, original ideas & behaviours and then using them in non-conventional ways.
Intrinsic motivation and creativity are related to each other. Specifically, creativity is greater if one is intrinsically motivated on a task. [21][22][18][23][19][24]. Intuitively, this is a logical connection. As Selart et al. (2008)[24] state, “Intrinsic motivation encompasses exploration, spontaneity, autonomy and interest in one’s surroundings.” Those various characteristics that encompass intrinsic motivation are characteristics that will also help foster creativity in general.
Motivation and Creativity: The overjustification hypothesis
To relate motivation and the education system (i.e., creativity in the education system), research in psychology suggests that the education system stifles creativity. A psychological theory termed the overjustification hypothesis explains the relationship between intrinsic/extrinsic motivation and future interest/motivation on that topic. The hypothesis states that when extrinsic motivators are applied to activities that were previously done for intrinsic reasons, than the intrinsic motivation for those activities will be decreased in the future. [23] Having lowered intrinsic motivation through extrinsic rewards would, in turn, lower creativity.
Within the education system, extrinsic rewards are nearly inescapable due to the standards of grading that must be applied (i.e., teachers must apply grades to school work in order to provide feedback and determine if the student “passes” the requirements of that course) in order to measure academic achievement and success. However, it is the system of grading that leads students to become disinterested and less creative in their work. The research supporting the overjustification hypothesis is extensive, as there are many studies, across many different age groups that have shown relatively consistent results. A classic study that is often cited, by Lepper et al. (1973)[23] was conducted with children completing a drawing activity. The results had shown that children in the “expected reward” condition had shown less future intrinsic interest on that activity compared to children in the “no reward” condition and “unexpected reward” condition [23]. The results further suggested that the “expected reward” condition group had less creative drawings than the other conditions [23]. In the real world, this means that when people are given rewards for tasks they previously had done for interest, then the reward becomes attached to the tasks and the individual will no longer complete the task in the absence of a reward. These findings have been replicated in other groups of children [22], in college & university students [25][24], and even in work environments [18].
How to Increase Intrinsic Motivation
There are a number of ways to increase intrinsic motivation (consequently, will increase creativity). First, give extrinsic rewards unexpectedly, not consistently [21]. When extrinsic motivators are expected, it will automatically decrease intrinsic motivation, achievement, and creativity. Second, appeal to the values of the person you are trying to motivate, rather than trying to get them to conform to your values, methods, or techniques [26]. For example, a student is not interested in intellectual knowledge but they are interested in life skills, so orient and explain the task so it appeals to life skill values [26].
There are several other ways to ensure the tasks are intrinsically motivating. According to McGuiness (2008), [27] to increase intrinsic motivation make sure the work is:
- Challenging, but not beyond the participants abilities
- Interesting for the participant
- Facilitates learning
- Creates “flow” (See "flow" section below)
- Has significance/purpose to the individual
Finally, flow is described as being completely focused on the task we are working on and find it easy to perform at peak performance, while accompanied by feelings of pleasure and satisfaction. [28]. This occurs when there are clear goals, immediate constructive feedback (NOT grading or pressure), when the challenge is equal to skill, there are no distractions, the individual is not worried about failing, the task it autotelic (i.e., enjoyable in itself), and individual is not self-conscious about their task performance. With those methods for “flow” in mind, creating an activity that will facilitate intrinsic motivation and flow will create better quality work, more original ideas and overall positive effects on work [28].
Additional Resources
- For more information on creativity and motivation, visit Mark McGuinness' website called Wishful Thinking.
- A great 11-minute video on intrinsic motivation and its effects on creativity and thinking (Posted by the RSA on April 1, 2010):
Teaching and Learning
Teaching
- Traditionally the education system has primarily focused on direct instruction, which is a very basic form of teaching and learning. Although this technique has been fairly effective for some students; it is not appropriate or successful for all. This method has been widely used across age groups in attempt to facilitate the ‘most’ information processing or learning across the majority of students within the learning environment. However this method lacks elements of creativity, and neglects to engage the students within the process (Gardner, 1993).[29]
- Lecture Based (verbal explanation and direction given by an instructor)
- Fast Paced
- Simple Direction & Instruction (question and answer type learning)
- Use of overheads, note-taking, textbook, lecture based learning
- While this method is simple and direct, teaching should instead focus on students strengths, and the incorporation of different skill sets or 'intelligences' in which individuals can effectively learn, as various creative methods and elements are used to efficiently address one's strongest 'intelligence type'. The incorporation of different learning techniques and practices would greatly enhance creativity within the learning environment and establish valuable learning (Simsek & Balaban, 2010).[31] The multiple intelligence theory (Gardner, 1983),[32] gives a new interpretation to learning and intelligence, breaking down skills or "intelligences" into categories based on areas of strength, and ways of learning.
Gardner (1993[29];1999[33]) outlines eight types of intelligence:
- Visual Spatial: the capacity to perceive the visual-spatial world accurately, to visualize space and modify or move that representation.
- Bodily Kinesthetic: the ability to control and skillfuly move objects and one's body, and knowledge regarding body functions and organs.
- Musical-Rhythmical: the ability to perform, compose or appreciate music and rhythm; and distinguish between pitches and tones.
- Interpersonal: the ability to understand other individuals wants, needs, desires, motivations, actions and emotions.
- Intrapersonal: the ability to recognize and cope with one's own feelings, desires, strengths and weaknesses.
- Logical-Mathematical: the capacity to use logic and reasoning to make sense of numerical problems, patterns.
- Verbal-Linguistic: the ability to successfully speak, define and write language, recognize rhythm, recognize functions of various components of language.
- Naturalistic: the capability to recognize, differentiate and discriminate characteristics of living and non-living things, and using an understanding of living things and nature to make sense and further disctinctions of the world.
- Therefore based on an individual’s unique and personal skill set or strengths in ‘intelligences’, information is best processed and interpreted differently than an individual with a different ‘intelligence’ strength/type. If an individual is able to recognize their strengths or strongest 'intelligence' or skill set, they are further able to determine which learning style best suits them. This effectively enhances the incorporation of of creative elements and practices within informational processing, learning and overall educational and academic success. Moreover, the more creative elements and techniques that are addressed and used by assuming there are individual differences in multiple intelligences and strength of skill sets, the more efficient and effective a learning environment will be for an individual, especially in an academic setting.
Learning Methods
- Learning skills and strategies have been thoroughly investigated in attempts to determine which techniques are used most often. Weinstein & Mayer (1986)[34] outlined five major groups of learning strategies, most commonly used. They were:
- Rehearsal Strategies: identifying and repeating important pieces of information; making lists; highlighting; underlining; reading aloud.
- Elaboration: involves giving deeper meaning to content, often by providing additional information; summarizing; analogies; metaphors.
- Organization: includes reviewing information and putting it a meaningful order; connecting pieces/ideas; creating tables or charts; concept maps.
- Metacognition: involves a students' awareness of their own abilities and skills, and involves alternative ways of learning; self-critique; personal reflection; self-monitoring; changing habits.
- Motivational: strategies and conscious efforts to perform better; attention focusing; directing anxiety; effective time-management; reducing stress; developing interest.
However, Weinstein & Mayer (1986)[34] suggest it is not which learning strategy or method you use, but how many learning strategies you incorporate within your learning experience. The more learning skills and strategies that are initiated and used within a lesson, the more creative the techniques and skills used in relation to traditional learning (which has such a limit in creative incorporation). This clearly suggests a greater need for the incorporation of various creative elements and activities to ensure the greatest amount of information transfer and valuable, meaningful learning to take place across a variety of individuals.
Not only would the incorporation of creative elements utilizing various ‘intelligences’ help to enhance the learning experience across individuals, but it would also be a much more engaging environment for children, youth and adults to learn. Rather than the traditional direct method, academic environments should allow a variety of skills to be demonstrated across numerous creative activities. This would allow individuals to incorporate their strengths in regards to multiple intelligences, further ensuring that valuable and engaging learning takes place.
Additional Resources
Take this quiz to find out: What Type of Thinker Are You?
Explaining Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences
Notes and References
- ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 Scofield, R. W. (1960, October). A Creative Climate. Educational Leadership. pp. 5-49.
- ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 Steffenhagen, J. (2009, Jan 07). Program aids learning-disabled; THRIVE provides additional help for students. The Vancouver Sun. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/244037149?accountid=9744
- ↑ Andrea, G. a. (2011, Jul 02). A difference doesn't have to be a deficit. Toronto Star. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/874429861?accountid=9744
- ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 Giangreco, M. F. (2007). Extending Inclusive Opportunities. Educational Leadership, 64(5), 34-37.
- ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 Crosbie, S. (2002, Feb 25). ADD should be viewed as a gift: Kingston Whig - Standard. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/352877320?accountid=9744
- ↑ 6.0 6.1 Shondrick, D. D., Serafica, F. C., Clark, P., & Miller, K. G. (1992). Interpersonal Problem Solving and Creativity in Boys with and Boys without Learning Disabilities. Learning Disability Quarterly, (2), 95.
- ↑ Eisen, M. L. (1989). Assessing differences in children with learning disabilities and normally achieving students with a new measure of creativity. Journal Of Learning Disabilities, 22(7), 462-464, 451.
- ↑ 8.0 8.1 McCord, K. A. (2004). Moving Beyond 'That's All I Can Do:' Encouraging Musical Creativity in Children with Learning Disabilities. Bulletin Of The Council For Research In Music Education, (159), 23.
- ↑ Cite error 8; No text given.
- ↑ Algozzine, B., Putnam, R., & Horner, R. H. (2012). Support for Teaching Students with learning Disabilities Academic skills and Social Behaviors within a Response-to-Intervention Model: Why It Doesn't Matter What Comes First. Insights On Learning Disabilities, 9(1), 7-36.
- ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 11.3 Betrus, A.K. (2013). Individualized Instruction - Pace, Method, Content, Examples of Individualized Instruction, Final Issues. Retrieved February 10, 2013 from http://education.stateuniversity.com/pages/2085/Individualized-Instruction.html.
- ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 Fasko Jr., D. (2001). Education and Creativity. Creativity Research Journal, 13(3/4), 317–327
- ↑ 13.0 13.1 Geist, E., & Hohn, J. (2009). Encouraging Creativity in the Face of Administrative Convenience: How our schools discourage divergent thinking. Education, 130(1), 141-150.
- ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 14.3 14.4 14.5 14.6 Kaufman, J.C. & Sternberg, R.J. (Eds.). (2010). The Cambridge Handbook of Creativity. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
- ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 15.3 15.4 Wood, C. (2002). Changing the Pace of School: Slowing down the day to improve the quality of learning. Phi Delta Kappan, 83(7), 545-550.
- ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 16.3 Powell, W., & Kusuma-Powell, O. (2011). How to Teach Now. In Knowing Our Students as Learners (Ch.1). Retrieved from http://www.ascd.org/publications/books/111011/chapters/Knowing-Our-Students-as-Learners.aspx
- ↑ Williams, R. (2012). How to motivate employees. Retrieved February 12, 2013, from http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/wired-success/201210/how-motivate-employees.
- ↑ 18.0 18.1 18.2 Hon, A. H. Y. (2012). Shaping environments conductive to creativity: The role of intrinsic motivation. Cornell Hospitality Quarterly, 53(1), 53-64. doi: 10.1177/1938965511424725
- ↑ 19.0 19.1 Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions and new directions. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25(1), 54-67. doi: 10.1006/ceps.1999.1020
- ↑ Mouchiroud, C., & Lubart, T. (2002). Social creativity: A cross-sectional study of 6- to 11-year-old children. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 26(1), 60-69.
- ↑ 21.0 21.1 Amabile, T. M., & Kramer, S. (2012). What doesn't motivate creativity can kill it. Retrieved February 12, 2013, from http://blogs.hbr.org/cs/2012/04/balancing_the_four_factors_tha_1.html
- ↑ 22.0 22.1 Hennessey, B. A., Amabile, T. M., & Martinage, M. (1989). Immunizing children against the negative effects of reward. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 14(3), 212-227. doi: 10.1016/0361-476X(89)90011-8
- ↑ 23.0 23.1 23.2 23.3 23.4 Lepper, M. R., Greene, D., & Nisbett, R. E. (1973). Undermining children's intrinsic interest with extrinsic reward: A test of the 'overjustification' hypothesis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 28(1), 129-137. doi: 10.1037/h0035519
- ↑ 24.0 24.1 24.2 Selart, M., Nordström, T., Kuvaas, B., & Takemura, K. (2008). Effects of reward on self-regulation, intrinsic motivation and creativity. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 52(5), 439-458. doi: 10.1080/00313830802346314
- ↑ Sarafino, E. P., & DiMattia, P. A. (1978). Does grading undermine intrinsic interest in a college course? Journal of Educational Psychology, 70(6), 916-921. doi: 10.1037/0022-0663.70.6.916
- ↑ 26.0 26.1 Reiss, S. (2012). How to motivate someone. Retrieved February 12, 2013, from http://www.huffingtonpost.com/steven-reiss-phd/motivation-tips_b_1533533.html
- ↑ McGuinness, M. (2008). Motivating creative people - the joy of work. Retrieved February 12, 2013, from http://www.wishfulthinking.co.uk/2008/11/03/motivating-creative-people-the-joy-of-work/
- ↑ 28.0 28.1 McGuinness, M. (2006). Creative flow. Retrieved February 12, 2013, from http://www.wishfulthinking.co.uk/2006/04/24/creative-flow/
- ↑ 29.0 29.1 Gardner, H. (1993). Multiple intelligences: he theory in practice. New York: Basic Books.
- ↑ Hoerr, T. (2002). Applying mi in schools. Retrieved October 5, 2005, from, http://www.newhorizons.org/strategies/mi/hoerr2.htm
- ↑ Simsek, A. & Balaban, J. (2010) Learning strategies of successful and unsuccessful university students. Contemporary Educational Technology, 1 (1) 36-45.
- ↑ Gardner, H. (1983) Frames of mind. The Theory of Multiple Intelligences. Basic Books Inc., New York. USA. P84.
- ↑ Gardner, H. (1999) Intelligence reframed: Multiple intelligences for the 21st century. New York, BasicBooks.
- ↑ 34.0 34.1 Weinstein, C. E. & Mayer, R. (1986). The teaching of learning strategies. In M. C, Wittrock (Ed.), Handbook of research on teaching (pp. 315-327). New York: Macmillan.
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