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	There are several other ways to ensure the tasks are intrinsically motivating. According to McGuiness (2008), <ref name="McGuiness2">McGuinness, M. (2008). Motivating creative people - the joy of work. Retrieved February 12, 2013, from http://www.wishfulthinking.co.uk/2008/11/03/motivating-creative-people-the-joy-of-work/</ref> to increase intrinsic motivation make sure the work is:		There are several other ways to ensure the tasks are intrinsically motivating. According to McGuiness (2008), <ref name="McGuiness2">McGuinness, M. (2008). Motivating creative people - the joy of work. Retrieved February 12, 2013, from http://www.wishfulthinking.co.uk/2008/11/03/motivating-creative-people-the-joy-of-work/</ref> to increase intrinsic motivation make sure the work is:
		+	[[Image:CreativeFlow.jpg|thumbnail|An artists' depiction of "'''Creative Flow'''"]]
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	#Creates “flow” (more on flow to follow)		#Creates “flow” (more on flow to follow)
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Contents 1 Creativity in Education 1.1 Creativity in Children with Learning Disabilities 2 Learning Pace within an Elementary Curriculum and Its Effect on Creativity 2.1 Learning Pace 2.2 Curriculum Based Learning 2.3 Divergent Thinking 2.4 Children’s Readiness 2.4.1 Zone of Proximal Development 2.5 Recommendations for the Future Pace of Educational Creativity 2.6 Additional Resources 2.6.1 Ken Robinson's Insight on Changing Education Paradigms - something that the Montessori schools are aiming to do. 3 Creativity and Motivation 3.1 Intrinsic/Extrinsic Motivation and Creativity 3.2 Motivation and Creativity: The overjustification hypothesis 3.3 How to Increase Intrinsic Motivation 3.4 Additional Resources 4 Teaching and Learning 4.1 Teaching 4.2 Learning 4.3 Additional Resources 4.4 Notes and References

Creativity in Education

Creativity in Children with Learning Disabilities

“The creativity of the future will be found in tomorrows adults^[1] . Tomorrows adults are today’s students and a significant amount of today’s students have a learning disability of some form. There is a negative stigma for children with learning disabilities; often they are viewed as being unintelligent however, this is not the case. Children with learning disabilities may struggle in areas that children without a disability may excel in^[2] . Learning disabled children can excel in other areas and often have high intelligence regardless of weaknesses they may have with regards to reading and writing^[2]. Students with learning disabilities account for half of students age 6-21^[3]. The importance of creativity should be stressed among students in today’s education system. Since a large number of students today are learning disabled it is important to help these students to harness creativity as well as those students without learning disabilities. Contrary to common belief often the brightest students in the class are not the most creative^[1]. This shows that intelligence is not the main source of creativity ^[1]. Steffenhagen^[2] says that learning disabilities can actually help give birth to creative thinking. By harnessing energy and thinking patterns that are prominent in students with attention deficit disorderADDcreativity and divergent thinking can be born^[4].Crosbie^[5]insists that students with learning disabilities such as ADD should be seen as gifted. If schools were less formal and more open to promoting creativity and multi-tasking in the forms of creative energy, learning disabled children would be at an advantage^[5]. Children with learning disabilities like ADD are seen as hyperactive and distracted. Hyperactivity is only what is seen on the outside of children with ADD. What people do not understand is that children with ADD tend to be multi-thinkers, they think much faster then children without ADD^[5]. In a study by Shondrick et al^[6]it was found that students who have learning disorders often have less social skills then children without a learning disorder. Shondrick et al^[6] believe that creativity is related to interpersonal problem solving skills and can be measured by fluency and flexibility, which children with learning disabilities score, equal to children without learning disabilities on. Eisen^[7]by measuring creativity visually children with learning disabilities actually outperform children without learning disabilities. This is important because it shows that these children are creative but need to display their creativity in different ways, such as visually as opposed to in writing.

Part of the problem for students with learning disabilities is the label that goes with having a disability^[2]. Teachers need to try to reduce the negative stigma that goes along with having a learning disability. This way students will feel freer to explore their creativity. Learning-disabled children feel singled out from regular students already and can find it difficult to be creative for fear of being seen as even more different from the rest^[8]. Often students start to see success as being unattainable and will stop trying to be successful^[8].Teachers need to help students harness the creativity within them. Children who have learning disabilities are entitled to learning support within their classrooms^[4]. Teachers can help students to make their own academic goals and work towards achieving them through a modified learning program^[4]. Scofield^[1] explains that if teachers were to encourage students to explore and be curious, while taking various approaches to problems and promoting trial and error, students would become more in touch with their creative side. Teachers need to feel free to let their students attempt to solve problems using various approaches, and allow students to struggle with problems in order to foster creativity^[1]. Brady^[9]schools that offer drama and theatre programs for students with learning disabilities, these classes help students to harness their energy and put it to creative use. Creativity is an important part of learning and is valued in today’s work world. In order to help students become more creative teachers need to assist them through creative learning. Children with learning disorders need to be placed in an environment that will enhance creative thinking and encourage alternate approaches to solving problems^[10].Teachers who are educated on the importance of creativity and have knowledge of how to enhance learning for disabled children can make a difference in the futures adults by encouraging creativity in all students.

Learning Pace within an Elementary Curriculum and Its Effect on Creativity

Learning Pace

When discussing the pace of learning, this notion can be described on two extreme ends of the spectrum. One end is when someone other than student (such as a teacher) controls the amount of time spent learning the material. ^[11] On this end of the spectrum, due dates are defined as strict and given before instruction begins - as most often in Western educational systems today. ^[11] The opposite end of the spectrum would look like the learner having independent control over the pace of instruction, without a time constraint or deadline. ^[11] Like any spectrum, there is a space between and in this case that is where the control of pace for instruction is discussed between the teacher and the student. ^[11]

It has been argued through many scholars, and researchers as well as strengthened through the use of data that children (specifically in elementary school) need more time in a school day, and more time in each subject in order to foster learning, understanding and creative learning. ^{[12][13][14][15]}

Curriculum Based Learning

Elementary schools in Ontario have left little time for children to find creative ways to express themselves and learn. Due to a hurried curriculum and an increased focus on academics, lessons are presented in quick chunks to cover more academic information, leaving children’s pace of learning rushed and unable to process or question the information they are receiving. ^{[15] [14]} Consequently, there are aspects of creativity that often do not fit well within the curriculum. This has to do with the fact that the organization of classes guarantee these children learn how to read, write and understand math, however, do not leave time in the school day to practice divergent and creative thinking – they must stick to a strict schedule in which questioning ideas is not accounted for. ^[14] Children are desperate for time to immerse themselves in creative activities and explore with no time constraints, or at least more than small chunks of time in which they can do this, ^[14] because when children have more time to explore content in depth, they can learn many skills and information which will help the student to excel in the future. ^[15]

Divergent Thinking

Divergent thinking can be defined as thinking that goes in many directions and generates a variety of ideas through the reorganization of information, innovative ways of thinking, and putting ideas into new patterns. ^[14] Divergent thinking is found to be a reliable and valid measure of the Torrance Test of Creativity. ^[14] The restrictions of the curriculum and the pressures to conform to a strict model create difficulties to practice divergent thinking, especially under the pressure of time. ^[14]

The education system and curriculum crushes the questions of "why?” and “how?” by focusing on strict and repetitious tasks on completing assignments and staying quiet and focused/ “on task” that is a constant part of a student’s day. These requirements discourage an individual from growing as a creative learner and becoming a divergent thinker. ^[13]

Children’s Readiness

Powell and Kusuma-Powell (2011)^[16] state that, in order to accommodate student readiness for learning, teachers personalize learning by acknowledging content, product, and process by:

• Changing the level of dependence of learning activities (e.g., task complexity). An example of this would be a teacher dividing complex tasks into manageable chunks for students.
• Altering clarity of tasks which would aid students by giving deliberately vague instructions.
• Opening and extending the degree of structure within a learning activity. Depending upon the readiness of the students, a teacher can provide a visual organizer or have the students develop their own.
• Gathering small groups of students and teaching specific skills as needed

In a positive regard, when teachers know and understand their students on a deeper level, they can consider these factors and come to a more accurate conclusion with regards to individual readiness and conclude with a more focused instruction to a student's optimal zone for learning. ^[16]

Zone of Proximal Development

This can be defined as a child’s intellectual readiness for a given task or for the understanding of an abstract concept. ^[16] The zone of proximal development is an approach to investigating readiness, but in a very specific way which is the discrepancy between what the child is able to achieve on their own and what the child can achieve through the collaboration with an adult. ^[16]

Recommendations for the Future Pace of Educational Creativity

True learning takes time (to question, think divergently, to wonder) and to rush through this time in class is conflicting to the nature of children and their minds which can lead them down a path in which can only go downhill. ^[15] Some recommendations for the future of creativity in pacing classrooms conducive to creative thinking can include but are not limited to the following:

1. Allow time for students to think about and develop their creative ideas ^[12]
2. Allow students to have choices and some control of their education and learning experiences ^[12]
3. Let everyone get involved, to show that supporting student ideas and solutions to problems and projects is beneficial to learning ^[12]
4. Provide enough time for students so they have the ability to have discussions with others, investigate, fail, and succeed ^[12]
5. Lastly, allow time for in-depth learning, investigation, and contemplation by reconstructing the curriculum and creating more time within the school day ^[15]

In addition, a step in the right direction is the implementation of schools such as Montessori Schoolsthat fosters the notion and finally understanding that many different ways children learn and at many different paces.

Montessori Classroom

Montessori Art Classroom

Montessori Childrens Kitchen/Classroom

Children Collaborating In a Montessori Classroom

Additional Resources

Ken Robinson's Insight on Changing Education Paradigms - something that the Montessori schools are aiming to do.

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Creativity and Motivation

Intrinsic/Extrinsic Motivation and Creativity

The term motivation has been defined as, “a predisposition to behave in a purposeful manner to achieve specific, unmet needs and the will to achieve, and the inner force that drives individuals to accomplish personal and organizational goals” ^[17] From this definition, we understand that motivation is a psychological construct that moves us into action in order to achieve a goal. Motivation can be broken down further into two distinct types: intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation is described as, “any motivation that arises from the individual’s positive reactions to the qualities of the task itself” ^[18]. In more plain terms, intrinsic motivation could be described as motivation that comes from within us, without any outside influences. In contrast, extrinsic motivation is, “a construct that pertains whenever an activity is done in order to attain some separable outcome… its instrumental value.” ^[19] Therefore, the motivation is coming from a source of motivation is coming from outside of the individual.

Creativity is a construct that is defined as, “a set of capacities enabling a person to behave in new and adaptive ways in given contexts.” ^[20] This tells us that creativity involves new, original ideas/behaviours and using them in non-conventional ways.

Intrinsic motivation and creativity are related to each other. Specifically, people will have greater creativity if they are intrinsically motivated on the task they are working on ^{[21][22][18][23][19][24]}. Intuitively, this is a logical connection. As Selart et al. (2008)^[24] state, “Intrinsic motivation encompasses exploration, spontaneity, autonomy and interest in one’s surroundings.” Those characteristics that encompass intrinsic motivation are characteristics that will also help foster creativity.

Motivation and Creativity: The overjustification hypothesis

To relate this to the topic at hand (i.e., creativity in the education system), research in psychology would suggest that the education system stifles creativity. A psychological theory termed the overjustification hypothesis explains the relationship between intrinsic/extrinsic motivation and future interest/motivation on that topic. The hypothesis states that when extrinsic motivators are applied to activities that were previously done for intrinsic reasons, than the intrinsic motivation for those activities will be decreased in the future. ^[23] Having lowered intrinsic motivation through extrinsic rewards would, in turn, lower creativity.

In the education system, extrinsic rewards are nearly inescapable due to the standards of grading that must be applied (i.e., teachers must apply grades to school work in order to provide feedback and determine if the student “passes” the requirements of that course). However, it is the exact system of grading that leads students to become disinterested and less creative in their work. The research supporting the overjustification hypothesis is extensive and there are many studies, across many different age groups that have shown relatively consistent results. The classic study that is often cited by Lepper et al. (1973)^[23] was conducted with children completing a drawing activity. The results had shown that children in the “expected reward” condition had shown less future intrinsic interest on that activity compared to children in the “no reward” condition and “unexpected reward” condition ^[23]. The results further suggested that the “expected reward” condition group had less creative drawings than the other conditions ^[23]. These findings have been replicated in other groups of children ^[22], in college & university students ^[25][24], and even in work environments ^[18].

How to Increase Intrinsic Motivation

There are a number of ways to increase intrinsic motivation (in turn, will increase creativity). First, give extrinsic rewards unexpectedly, not consistently ^[21]. When extrinsic motivators are expected, it will automatically decrease intrinsic motivation. Second, appeal to the values of the person you are trying to motivate, instead of trying to get them to conform to your values ^[26]. For example, a student is not interested in intellectual knowledge but they are interested in life skills, so orient and explain the task so it appeals to life skill values ^[26].

There are several other ways to ensure the tasks are intrinsically motivating. According to McGuiness (2008), ^[27] to increase intrinsic motivation make sure the work is:

1. Challenging, but not beyond the participants abilities
2. Interesting for the participant
3. Facilitates learning
4. Creates “flow” (more on flow to follow)
5. Has significance/purpose to the individual

Finally, flow is described as, “fully absorbed in whatever we are doing and find it easy to achieve peak performance… accompanied by intense feelings of pleasure and satisfaction” ^[28]. It occurs when there are clear goals, immediate feedback (NOT grading or pressure), challenge is equal to skill, no distractions, not worried about failing, task it autotelic (i.e., enjoyable in itself), and person is not self-conscious. With these in mind, creating an activity/goal with these in mind will facilitate intrinsic motivation and flow ^[28].

Additional Resources

• For more information on creativity and motivation, visit Mark McGuinness' website called Wishful Thinking.

• A great 11-minute video on intrinsic motivation and its effects on creativity and thinking (Posted by the RSA on April 1, 2010):

Teaching and Learning

Teaching

Traditionally the education system has primarily focused on Direct Instruction, which is a very basic form of teaching and learning. Although this technique has been fairly effective for some students; it is not appropriate or successful for all. This method has been widely used across age groups in attempt to facilitate the ‘most’ information processing or learning across the majority of students within the learning environment. However this method lacks elements of creativity, and neglects to engage the students within the process (Gardner, 1993).^[29]

Direct Instruction is (Hoerr, 2002):^[30]

• Lecture Based
• Fast Paced
• Simple Direction & Instruction
• Use of overheads, note-taking, textbook, lecture based learning

Instead teaching should focus on students strengths, and the incorporation of different skill sets or 'intelligences' in which individuals can effectively learn. The incorporation of different learning techniques and practices would greatly enhance creativity within the learning environment and establish valuable learning (Simsek & Balaban, 2010).^[31] The Multiple Intelligence Theory (Gardner, 1983),^[32] gives a new interpretation to learning and intelligence, breaking down skills or "intelligences" into categories based on areas of strength, and ways of learning.

Multiple Intelligences

Gardner (1993^[29];1999^[33]) outlines 8 types of intelligence:

• Visual Spatial: the capacity to perceive the visual-spatial world accurately, to visualize space and modify or move that representation.
• Bodily Kinesthetic: the ability to control and skillfuly move objects and one's body, and knowledge regarding body functions and organs.
• Musical-Rhythmical: the ability to perform, compose or appreciate music and rhythm; and distinguish between pitches and tones.
• Interpersonal: the ability to understand other individuals wants, needs, desires, motivations, actions and emotions.
• Intrapersonal: the ability to recognize and cope with one's own feelings, desires, strengths and weaknesses.
• Logical-Mathematical: the capacity to use logic and reasoning to make sense of numerical problems, patterns.
• Verbal-Linguistic: the ability to successfully speak, define and write language, recognize rhythm, recognize functions of various components of language.
• Naturalistic: the capability to recognize, differentiate and discriminate characteristics of living and non-living things, and using an understanding of living things and nature to make sense and further disctinctions of the world.

Therefore based on an individual’s unique and personal skill set or strengths in ‘intelligences’, information is best processed and interpreted differently than an individual with a different ‘intelligence’ strength/type. If an individual is able to recognize their strengths of strongest 'intelligence', they are further able to determine which learning style best suits them, effectively enhancing their informational processing, learning and overall educational and academic success.

Learning

Learning skills and strategies have been thoroughly investigated in attempts to determine which techniques are used most often. Weinstein & Mayer (1986)^[34] outlined 5 major groups of learning strategies, most commonly used. They were:

• Rehearsal Strategies: identifying and repeating important pieces of information; making lists; highlighting; underlining; reading aloud.
• Elaboration: involves giving deeper meaning to content, often by providing additional information; summarizing; analogies; metaphors.
• Organization: includes reviewing information and putting it a meaningful order; connecting pieces/ideas; creating tables or charts; concept maps.
• Metacognition: involves a students' awareness of their own abilities and skills, and involves alternative ways of learning; self-critique; personal reflection; self-monitoring; changing habits.
• Motivational: strategies and conscious efforts to perform better; attention focusing; directing anxiety; effective time-management; reducing stress; developing interest.

However Weinstein & Mayer (1986)^[34] suggest it is not which learning style you use, but how many learning styles you incorporate within your learning experience.This clearly suggests a greater need for the incorporation of various creative elements and activities to ensure the greatest amount of information transfer and valuable, meaningful learning to take place across a variety of individuals.

Not only would the incorporation of creative elements utilizing various ‘intelligences’ help to enhance the learning experience across individuals, but it would also be a much more engaging environment for children, youth and adults to learn. Rather than the traditional Direct Method, academic environments should allow a variety of skills to be demonstrated across numerous creative activities, allowing individuals to incorporate their strengths in regards to Multiple Intelligences, further ensuring that valuable and engaging learning takes place.

Additional Resources

Take this quiz to find out: What Type of Learner Are You?

Explaining Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences

Notes and References

1. ↑ ^{1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4} Scofield, R. W. (1960, October). A Creative Climate. Educational Leadership. pp. 5-49.
2. ↑ ^{2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3} Steffenhagen, J. (2009, Jan 07). Program aids learning-disabled; THRIVE provides additional help for students. The Vancouver Sun. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/244037149?accountid=9744
3. ↑ Andrea, G. a. (2011, Jul 02). A difference doesn't have to be a deficit. Toronto Star. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/874429861?accountid=9744
4. ↑ ^{4.0 4.1 4.2} Giangreco, M. F. (2007). Extending Inclusive Opportunities. Educational Leadership, 64(5), 34-37.
5. ↑ ^{5.0 5.1 5.2} Crosbie, S. (2002, Feb 25). ADD should be viewed as a gift: Kingston Whig - Standard. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/352877320?accountid=9744
6. ↑ ^{6.0 6.1} Shondrick, D. D., Serafica, F. C., Clark, P., & Miller, K. G. (1992). Interpersonal Problem Solving and Creativity in Boys with and Boys without Learning Disabilities. Learning Disability Quarterly, (2), 95.
7. ↑ Eisen, M. L. (1989). Assessing differences in children with learning disabilities and normally achieving students with a new measure of creativity. Journal Of Learning Disabilities, 22(7), 462-464, 451.
8. ↑ ^{8.0 8.1} McCord, K. A. (2004). Moving Beyond 'That's All I Can Do:' Encouraging Musical Creativity in Children with Learning Disabilities. Bulletin Of The Council For Research In Music Education, (159), 23.
9. ↑ Algozzine, B., Putnam, R., & Horner, R. H. (2012). Support for Teaching Students with learning Disabilities Academic skills and Social Behaviors within a Response-to-Intervention Model: Why It Doesn't Matter What Comes First. Insights On Learning Disabilities, 9(1), 7-36.
10. ↑ Algozzine, B., Putnam, R., & Horner, R. H. (2012). Support for Teaching Students with learning Disabilities Academic skills and Social Behaviors within a Response-to-Intervention Model: Why It Doesn't Matter What Comes First. Insights On Learning Disabilities, 9(1), 7-36.
11. ↑ ^{11.0 11.1 11.2 11.3} Betrus, A.K. (2013). Individualized Instruction - Pace, Method, Content, Examples of Individualized Instruction, Final Issues. Retrieved February 10, 2013 from http://education.stateuniversity.com/pages/2085/Individualized-Instruction.html.
12. ↑ ^{12.0 12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4} Fasko Jr., D. (2001). Education and Creativity. Creativity Research Journal, 13(3/4), 317–327
13. ↑ ^{13.0 13.1} Geist, E., & Hohn, J. (2009). Encouraging Creativity in the Face of Administrative Convenience: How our schools discourage divergent thinking. Education, 130(1), 141-150.
14. ↑ ^{14.0 14.1 14.2 14.3 14.4 14.5 14.6} Kaufman, J.C. & Sternberg, R.J. (Eds.). (2010). The Cambridge Handbook of Creativity. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
15. ↑ ^{15.0 15.1 15.2 15.3 15.4} Wood, C. (2002). Changing the Pace of School: Slowing down the day to improve the quality of learning. Phi Delta Kappan, 83(7), 545-550.
16. ↑ ^{16.0 16.1 16.2 16.3} Powell, W., & Kusuma-Powell, O. (2011). How to Teach Now. In Knowing Our Students as Learners (Ch.1). Retrieved from http://www.ascd.org/publications/books/111011/chapters/Knowing-Our-Students-as-Learners.aspx
17. ↑ Williams, R. (2012). How to motivate employees. Retrieved February 12, 2013, from http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/wired-success/201210/how-motivate-employees.
18. ↑ ^{18.0 18.1 18.2} Hon, A. H. Y. (2012). Shaping environments conductive to creativity: The role of intrinsic motivation. Cornell Hospitality Quarterly, 53(1), 53-64. doi: 10.1177/1938965511424725
19. ↑ ^{19.0 19.1} Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions and new directions. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25(1), 54-67. doi: 10.1006/ceps.1999.1020
20. ↑ Mouchiroud, C., & Lubart, T. (2002). Social creativity: A cross-sectional study of 6- to 11-year-old children. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 26(1), 60-69.
21. ↑ ^{21.0 21.1} Amabile, T. M., & Kramer, S. (2012). What doesn't motivate creativity can kill it. Retrieved February 12, 2013, from http://blogs.hbr.org/cs/2012/04/balancing_the_four_factors_tha_1.html
22. ↑ ^{22.0 22.1} Hennessey, B. A., Amabile, T. M., & Martinage, M. (1989). Immunizing children against the negative effects of reward. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 14(3), 212-227. doi: 10.1016/0361-476X(89)90011-8
23. ↑ ^{23.0 23.1 23.2 23.3 23.4} Lepper, M. R., Greene, D., & Nisbett, R. E. (1973). Undermining children's intrinsic interest with extrinsic reward: A test of the 'overjustification' hypothesis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 28(1), 129-137. doi: 10.1037/h0035519
24. ↑ ^{24.0 24.1 24.2} Selart, M., Nordström, T., Kuvaas, B., & Takemura, K. (2008). Effects of reward on self-regulation, intrinsic motivation and creativity. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 52(5), 439-458. doi: 10.1080/00313830802346314
25. ↑ Sarafino, E. P., & DiMattia, P. A. (1978). Does grading undermine intrinsic interest in a college course? Journal of Educational Psychology, 70(6), 916-921. doi: 10.1037/0022-0663.70.6.916
26. ↑ ^{26.0 26.1} Reiss, S. (2012). How to motivate someone. Retrieved February 12, 2013, from http://www.huffingtonpost.com/steven-reiss-phd/motivation-tips_b_1533533.html
27. ↑ McGuinness, M. (2008). Motivating creative people - the joy of work. Retrieved February 12, 2013, from http://www.wishfulthinking.co.uk/2008/11/03/motivating-creative-people-the-joy-of-work/
28. ↑ ^{28.0 28.1} McGuinness, M. (2006). Creative flow. Retrieved February 12, 2013, from http://www.wishfulthinking.co.uk/2006/04/24/creative-flow/
29. ↑ ^{29.0 29.1} Gardner, H. (1993). Multiple intelligences: he theory in practice. New York: Basic Books.
30. ↑ Hoerr, T. (2002). Applying mi in schools. Retrieved October 5, 2005, from, http://www.newhorizons.org/strategies/mi/hoerr2.htm
31. ↑ Simsek, A. & Balaban, J. (2010) Learning strategies of successful and unsuccessful university students. Contemporary Educational Technology, 1 (1) 36-45.
32. ↑ Gardner, H. (1983) Frames of mind. The Theory of Multiple Intelligences. Basic Books Inc., New York. USA. P84.
33. ↑ Gardner, H. (1999) Intelligence reframed: Multiple intelligences for the 21st century. New York, BasicBooks.
34. ↑ ^{34.0 34.1} Weinstein, C. E. & Mayer, R. (1986). The teaching of learning strategies. In M. C, Wittrock (Ed.), Handbook of research on teaching (pp. 315-327). New York: Macmillan.