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From BIOL 2P96 Jan 2013 Group 10
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Chytrids and their role in the food web
Introduction
Chytrids are a unique phylum within the kingdom Fungi; there are over 1000 species all of which are found in a wide range of locations around the world, anywhere from the arctic to the tropics (Moore et al., 2011). They are the only fungi phyla which produce motile spores called zoospores which have flagella (James et al., 2006). Because their zoospores are motile, the Chytrids are required to live in aquatic environments, commonly streams, ponds, estuaries and other marine systems, the majority of Chytrids live in moist terrestrial environments such as forests, agricultural soils and bogs (Moore et al., 2011). In the past, they were not considered to be true fungi because of their zoospores, but because of DNA analyses they have been accepted into the kingdom Fungi (Hibbett et al., 2007). They are classified into 5 orders based on their morphology, reproductive methods, habitats, life cycles and other defining characteristics (James et al., 2006). Those 5 orders are: Chytridiales, Blastocladiales, Monoblepharidales, Spizellomycetales and Neocallimastigales. It was previously thought (based on physical characteristics) that there was a single lineage for the Chytrids but because of recent molecular data, there are now thought to be 4 separate lineages, for this reason the Chytrids are not considered to be a monophyletic group. The Blastocladiales and Neocallimastigales which were previously thought to be orders were promoted to phyla status with recent scientific findings (Moore et al., 2011). Each of the Chytrid groupings has defining characteristics which distinguish them from the other groupings. The Chytridiales are the largest grouping, they reproduce using zygotic meiosis and they have an operculum on their zoospores (James et al., 2006). The Blastocladiales reproduce using sporic meiosis and exhibit alternation of sporophytic and gametophytic reproductive generations. The Monoblepharidales reproduce using oogamous sexual reproduction. Each genus of the Spizellomycetales has distinctive zoospore structures. The Neocallimastigales are anaerobic symbionts of various herbivores’ digestive tracts. Although a lot of discoveries concerning Chytrids have been made in the recent history, there is a lot more not known about them and they are proving to be an area within biology with a lot of potential with further research.
Chytrid Life Cycle
Species involved
Chytrids contain 706 species in 105 genera. These species of chytrid can be found in aquatic environments such as streams, ponds and estuaries due to their inherited flagellated zoospores which are great for dispersal in water (Moore et al. 2011). Some species of chytrid are saprobes which feed on dead and rotting organic matter while others are parasites and live on plants or invertebrate animals. Batrachochytrium dendrobanditis, a relatively new species discovered in 1999, is the only known chytrid parasite of vertebrates. This parasite infects the skin of amphibians and causes chytridiomycosis, which is a fatal disease that has resulted in a major decline in the amphibian population.[1] Batrachochytrium dendrobanditis is currently under study so as to help species of amphibian on the verge of extinction (Pessier, Allan. 2013).
Another parasitic chytrid species is Olpidium brassicae. This species was one of the latest to diverge from the rest of the chytrids. Olpidium brassicae live within a host cell (endoparasitic) and affect plants such as melons of all kinds and gourds (Moore et al. 2011). No symptoms are left but these parasites serve as vectors in several soil-borne plant viruses. The largest genus of Chytridomycota are the Rhizophydium which are pathogens of plants. Upon germination some species of the Rhizophydium release zoospores from one or more pores, whereas other species release zoospores by having a large amount of the sporangial wall melt away.
Rozella is a diverse lineage of chytrid containing 22 different species. Like Oldipium this related species is endoparasitic. Unlike Oldipium, Rozella appears to be one of the very earliest lineages to diverge from the rest of the chytrids (James et al. 2006). Rozella was circumscribed by French mycologist Marie Maxime Cornu in 1872.Blastocladiales diverged from the the core chytrids and has a life cycle with sporic meiosis whereas most core chytrids have zygotic meiosis. Blastocladiales carry out asexual reproduction by thick-walled resting spores that produce zoospores upon germination. Three of the five families within Blastocladiales are pathogenic and affect nematodes, mosquito larvae and many aquatic plants (James T.Y et al. 2006). One of the saprobic Blastocladiales species includes Neocallimastix spp. which reside in the rumen of herbivores and are active in cellulose degradation.
Synchytrium endobioticum also known as potato wart disease; these warts reduce edibility and therefore crop yield (Surman, W. 2010). In the year 2000 Synchytrium endobioticum was the disease responsible for the quarantine of the P.E.I potato crop. Potato wart is a serious disease of cultivated potato that has been detected worldwide, but generally with limited distribution due to stringent quarantine and regulatory measures. In Canada, it has been found in Newfoundland in home gardens since the early 1900’s. It was also discovered in Prince Edward Island in 2000, where it remains under regulatory control by the Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA). For more information on the Potato Wart Disease click on the following link. [2]
Processes involved
Various Forms of Reproduction in Chytrids - Asexually
Asexual reproduction in chytrids is typically done through (1) bud formation, (2) fragmentation and (3) sporulation.
(1) Bud Formation
Simply formed, asexual reproduction can be endured through the process of budding of binary fission. The initial stages of budding occur with the hardening of chitin around the cell wall, which is where the bud is going to appear, and eventually bud off the original cell. Turgor pressure acts as a release mechanism, so that the bud can eventually fall off grow onward from its initial formation state.
<<<<<ENTER PICTURE OF BUDD FORMATION HERE>>>>>>
(2) Fragmentation
Secondary option of asexual reproduction can be described as fragmentation. It is that any mycelium which undergoes a disruption of its ultimate growth size and initiates its own growth colony. The division of the hyphal fungal tip fragment, do not regenerate, however the branches can, with some form of negative damage.
<<<ENTER PICTURE OF FRAGMENTATION>>>>
(3) Sporulation
This is the most crucial form of asexual reproduction which chytrids use. The asexual spores are formed on a phase of fungal life cycle which is mitosporic or anamorphic.
Asexual Reproduction
Chytrids have a simple thallus and motile zoospores, making them distinct form other fungi. The structure is very simple and consists of a single cell, which consists of rhizoids that help to anchor it onto a substrate. Motile zoopsores are produced by the chytrids in order for asexual reproduction to occur. The zoospores have a single, posterior flagellum in sporangia. Chytrids are normally holocarpic meaning that the entire thallus functions as sporangium. A holocarpic chytrid has a thallus that consists of only one cell with rhizoids. They are usually parasitic on aquatic plants or fish. The fungus "feeds" from its substrate directly through the rhizoids. A holocarpic chytrid's entire cell content will convert to motile zoospores.
Sexual Reproduction
Diploid spore production after the fusion of two different mating types is how sexual reproduction may occur in some members of the chytrids. A diploid mycelium or haploid mycelium may be produced. The spore may germinate to produce a diploid vegetative mycelium, or a haploid mycelium may be produced through meitotic division. Another way for a haploid vegetative mycelium to be produced is through having resting sporangia undergo meiosis. Then, the haploid zoospres may germinate to produce haploid mycelium.
Thallus Production
There are three main types of thallus production and growth in chytrids which include: (1) endogenous-monocentric, (2) exogenous-monocentric, and exogenous-polycentric. (1) Endogenous-monocentric: is when the development occurs when the zoospore of the nucleus stays within the encysted wall of the zoospore, which then undergoes mitosis. (2) Exogenous-monocentric: is the development occuring when the zoospore nucleus migrates toward the germ tube, and eventually evolves into it. It then undergoes mitosis. (3) Exogenous-polycentric: is the development which occurs when the zoospore nucleus migrates toward and eventually into the germ tube, undergoes mitosis, and then spreads into various locations. (Infolinks, 2012)
The α-aminoadipate Pathway for Lysine Biosynthesis
Chytrids use the α-aminoadipate pathway for lysine biosynthesis. The AAA pathway is only available to higher fungi like the chytrids. Enzymes involved in this pathway are unique specifically to enzyme synthesis. The first half of the process occurs in the mitochondrion where acetyl CoA and α-ketoglutarate for the AAA. Homocitrate is a product formed by the combination of acetyl CoA and α-ketoglutarate and is what drives this reaction. Conversion of homocitrate is catalyzed by the Homoaconitase (HAc), which is an enzyme that was the first link between the AAA pathway in fungal organisms. (Jones, 1996). The second half of the pathway, the aminotransferase is present in both the mitochondrion and the cytoplasm. Phosphopantetheinyl transferase (PPT) allows enzymes to be activated in order for adenylation and reduction of the AAA reductase to occur for the semialdehyde to be formed. Semialdehyde is then oxidized to produce aminoadipate semialdehyde, which is then reduced to form L-lysine. (Johansson et al, 2000). NADPH and NADH are important in this pathway because they are used as coenzymes. A high NADPH-to-NADH ratio would allow the synthesis of lysine from aminoadipate semialdehyde, whereas a low ratio would inhibit the synthesis, therefore production of lysine would not occur. The two separate steps in this pathway occur because of the levels of NADPH and ATP (adenosine triphosphate). The two separate processes better regulate the overall whole pathway. The AAA pathway is important because it is used for detecting and controlling pathogenic molds and yeasts. (West, 2006).
Metabolic Pathway of certain Chytrids
Chytrids occur in aquatic environments such as streams, ponds, estuaries and marine systems, living as parasites of algae and planktonic organisms. The majority of chytrids occur in terrestrial forest, agricultural and desert soils, and in acidic bogs as saprotrops on difficult-to-digest substrata like pollen grains, chitin, keratin and cellulose (Moore, Robson & Trinci, 2011). Anaerobic chytrids are the most economically important members of the group. They are also present in vast majority because they occur in the rumen and hindgut of many larger mammalian herbivores including all farm animals. Although they are morphologically similar to the other chytrids, differences are sufficient for them to be placed in their own phylum called Neocallimastigomycota. Anaerobic chytrids have a crucial role in the colonization and the enzymatic degradation of lignocellulose in plants eaten by herbivores. Therefore they are crucial to the evolution of herbivores and to the prosperity of animal husbandry. These chytrids are potent producers of enzymes needed to degrade cellulose. Their own carbon metabolism relies on fermentation of glucose to acetate, lactate, ethanol and hydrogen. They possess an organelle called a hydrogenosome that generates ATP and appears to be a degenerate mitochondrion lacking a genome (Moore, Robson & Trinci, 2011). The figure shows details of metabolism of anaerobic chytrids.
History of Chytrids
Taxonomy
Correct taxonomic classification of Chytrids has been the hot topic of many debates, puzzling scientists on whether they should be classified as true Fungi. Previous classification systems suggested that the absence of flagella was a requirement for classification within the Kingdom Fungi, and since some Chytrids have flagellated spores they were placed within the Protists, a previous taxonomic group which no longer exists [1]. This classification however, was always under much deliberation as Chytrids do contain chitin in their cell walls, and use glycogen as a storage molecule, all characteristics of true fungi [2]. These characteristics in combination with recent DNA sequencing confirms that they are in fact true fungi but they are currently considered a very primitive member[3],[4].
Evolution
Chytrid-like fungi fossils found in northern Russia from the Vendian Period are the oldest known fungi fossils. Other fossils, previously thought to be fungi, are now considered to be the remnants of filamentous cyanobacteria. Other older fossils that look like fungi are not distinctly classifiable, leaving chytrids as the oldest fungi found in the fossil record to date.
Chytrid fossils can be found, among members of some other major fungal groups, in the Devonian Rhynie Chert in Scotland. Some of these parasitic forms are closely related to modern Blastocladiales. Other chytrids found in the Rhynie Chert are similar to Spizellomycetales, demonstrating that chytrids had already diversified by the Devonian Period. Chytrids are important because they are probably similar to the ancestors of fungi. The evolutionary relationships studied indicate that chytrids are probably like the ancestors of fungi.
Definitions
Anaerobic symbiont: an organism that shares a symbiotic relationship with another organism, that is they associated in such a way that both organisms benefits from their interaction with each other.
Anamorph: production, or relation to the gradual evolution of a species, from one organism to another.
Alternation of generations: interchanging between haploid and diploid states.
Chytridiomycosis: is an infectious disease of amphibians, caused by the chytrid Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis.
Endoparasitic: living within a host cell.
Flagella: whip-like appendages used for movement.
Germination: the process whereby seeds or spores sprout and begin to grow.
Holocarpic: the entire thallus functions as sporangium.
Lineage: Direct descent from a particular ancestor; ancestry.
Mitospore: haploid or diploid spore produced through the process of mitosis
Monophyletic: a phylogenetic group which contains both the common ancestor of the group and all of its descendants.
Oogamous sexual reproduction: a method of sexual reproduction in which gametes (egg and sperm) join together and form offspring.
Operculum: a lid-like structure which encloses spores within the organism’s fruiting structure.
Saprobes: any organism, especially a fungus or bacterium, that lives and feeds on dead organic matter.
Sporangium: A single or multi-celled structure in which spores are produced.
Sporic meiosis: meiosis that occurs while spores are forming.
Zoospores: a spore of certain algae, fungi, and protozoans, capable of swimming by means of a flagellum.
Zygotic meiosis: meiosis that occurs while zygotes are undergoing germination.
References
Gleason, F., Kagami, M., Lefevre, E., Sime-Ngando, T. 2008. The Ecology of Chytrids in Aquatic Ecosystems: Roles in Food Web Dynamics. Fungal Biology Reviews. 22: 17-25
Hass, H., Taylor, T. N., & Remy, W. (1994). Fungi from the Lower Devonian Rhynie Chert: Mycoparasitism. American Journal Of Botany, 81(1), 29-37.
Hibbett et al. 2007. A higher-level phylogenetic classification of the Fungi. Mycological Research. 111: 509-547.
Infolinks, (2012). Chytrids. Retrieved on March 20, 2013 from http://lifeofplant.blogspot.ca/2011/05/chytrids.html.
James, T. Y., Letcher, P. M., Longcore, J. E., Mozley-Standridge, S. E., Porter, D., Powell, M. J., & Vilgalys, R. (2006). A Molecular Phylogeny of the Flagellated Fungi (Chytridiomycota) and Description of a New Phylum (Blastocladiomycota). Mycologia, 98(6), 860-871
Johansson, E., Steffens, J. J., Lindqvist, Y., and Schneider, G. (2000) Crystal structure of saccharopine reductase from Magnaporthe grisea, an enzyme of the 〈-aminoadipate path- way of lysine biosynthesis. Struct. Fold. Des. 8, 1037–1047.
Jones, E. E. and Broquist, H. P. (1966) Saccharopine, an intermediate of the aminoadipic acid pathway of lysine biosynthesis. III. Aminoadipic semialdehyde-glutamate reductase. J. Biol. Chem. 241, 3430–3434.
J. P. Tewari and P. Bains, Fungi associated with the roots of clover in Alberta. I. Olpidium brassicae and Ligniera sp. Canadian Plant Disease Survey 63:2, 1983 35, found at CPS-SCP of Canada website. Accessed March 20, 201
Kagami, M., Elert, E., Ibelings, B., Bruin, A., Donk, E. 2007. The parasitic chytrid, Zygorhizidium, facilitates the growth of the cladoceran zooplankter, Daphnia, in cultures of the inedible alga, Asterionella. Proceeding of the Royal society Biological Sciences. 274: 1561-1566
Moore et al.. 2011. 21st century guidebook to fungi. New York, NY.
Pessier, Allan. 2013. Amphibian Ark. Cytrid Fungus. The Amphibian Chytrid Fungus and Chytridiomycosis. <http://www.amphibianark.org/the-crisis/chytrid-fungus/>
Remy, W., Taylor, T. N., & Hass, H. (1994). Early Devonian fungi; a blastocladalean fungus with sexual reproduction. American Journal Of Botany, 81(6), 690-702.
Taylor, T. N., Hass, H. H., Kerp, H. H., Krings, M. M., & Hanlin, R. T. (2005). Perithecial Ascomycetes from the 400 Million Year Old Rhynie Chert: An Example of Ancestral Polymorphism. Mycologia, 97(1), 269-285.
West, H.A., and Cook, F.P. (2006). The α-Aminoadipate Pathway for Lysine Biosynthesis in Fungi. Cell Biochem Biophys. 46(1):43-64.
William Surman (19 August, 2010). "Major new disease threat to potatoes". Farmers Guardian / UBM Information Ltd.. Retrieved 21 March, 2013