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| As previously mentioned another defining characteristic between the commercial ''A. brunnescens'' and closely related ''A. campestris'' found growing in the wild other than cap color is the number of spores located in the basidium. Following microscopic cellular analysis of the basidia by which cells are born, a sample of ''A. brunnescens'' will possess only 2 spores per basidium compared to the normal 4 spores per basidium in ''A. campestris''. | As previously mentioned another defining characteristic between the commercial ''A. brunnescens'' and closely related ''A. campestris'' found growing in the wild other than cap color is the number of spores located in the basidium. Following microscopic cellular analysis of the basidia by which cells are born, a sample of ''A. brunnescens'' will possess only 2 spores per basidium compared to the normal 4 spores per basidium in ''A. campestris''. | ||
| - | [[Image: | + | [[Image: Sliced_Agaricus_Bisporus.jpg|thumb |175px| ''Agaricus brunnescens'' ready to be cooked]] |
| ===Closely Related Species=== | ===Closely Related Species=== | ||
| Additional closely related species can be differentiated by the bruising color on their caps and include: | Additional closely related species can be differentiated by the bruising color on their caps and include: | ||
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| Widely popular and commercially available mushroom due to its strong flavor and versatility of use when sautéed or added to red meat dishes, with many people preferring to harvest the wild ''Agaricus campestris'' during its more mature stages for their stronger flavor in comparison with the commercially available ''Agaricus brunnescens''. | Widely popular and commercially available mushroom due to its strong flavor and versatility of use when sautéed or added to red meat dishes, with many people preferring to harvest the wild ''Agaricus campestris'' during its more mature stages for their stronger flavor in comparison with the commercially available ''Agaricus brunnescens''. | ||
| - | [[Image: Agaricus_brunnescens_(cooked).jpg|thumb |175px| ''Agaricus brunnescens'' cooked | + | [[Image: Agaricus_brunnescens_(cooked).jpg|thumb |175px| ''Agaricus brunnescens'' cooked separately from the main course]] |
| ===Growth=== | ===Growth=== | ||
| Although not native to North America, ''Agaricus brunnesces'' that has escaped from cultivation can be found in the wild growing in grass, especially near big cities like: Boston, New York, Philidelphia, and Washington. | Although not native to North America, ''Agaricus brunnesces'' that has escaped from cultivation can be found in the wild growing in grass, especially near big cities like: Boston, New York, Philidelphia, and Washington. | ||
Revision as of 21:08, 20 March 2013
This will be the location for our agreed upon introduction for edible fungi and their closely resembling Poisonous and Hallucinogenic Fungi
Contents |
Mycophagy Throughout History
Ancient Times
Fungi has been used as a food source by humans for millenia. Archaeological records show edible mushroom fossils along with humans who lived approximately 13000 years ago in what is now modern day Chile [1]. A more thorough record of mushrooms as a food source can be dated back to texts written during the Han Dynasty in ancient China (206 BCE-220 CE). In ancient societies around the globe, fungi was not only prized for its medicinal properties, but it was also believed to have magical properties associated with immortality.
Emperor Wu of the Han dynasty went so far as to call for large expeditions to attempt to find these elusive mythological Fungi [2]. Fungi shared this mythical status in ancient Egypt. Hieroglyphic depictions of fungi dating back to 4500 BCE can be seen throughout the area. They can even be found in the Book of the Dead where they are described as being the "food of the Gods" [3]. The Pharaohs explicitly outlawed the consumption of fungi amongst the common populous as they were seen as only fit for royal consumption [4].
Antiquity
In Ancient Greek and Roman times, the mushroom was also a highly prized and was mainly consumed by the upper class. A particular favourite of the Emperors of Rome was the Amanite caesarea or Caesar's Mushroom, regularly on the menu at grand feasts. Unfortunately, its strong resemblance to poisonous varieties made it a relatively common and effective means of assassination. The poison's symptoms would manifest the following day and the victim would die in a week's time [5].
Mesoamerica
Of the few Mayan texts which survived the arrival of the Spanish Conquistadors, there are hieroglyphics depicting what appears to be a man outstretching an offering of a mushroom to some sort of Deity. This suggests that mushrooms were integral to religious ceremony amongst the ancient Mayan peoples [6].
Beginnings of Commercialization
Fungi was first intentionally grown as a crop around 600 CE. In the seventeenth century, mushrooms were first cultivated by the addition of spore laden manure into fresh piles of manure. In 1886 the first sterile techniques were used in order to ensure that only the desired fungi would grow on the substrate. In 1905, it was first discovered that one could produce fungi directly from tissues and not from spores themselves. These discoveries along with the prospects of indoor mushroom production paved the way for the manufacturing techniques used today for mass production [7].
Commercial Fungi Production
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“Chicken-of-the-Woods”
(a.k.a Laetiporus conifericola, Laetiporus sulphurous, sulphur shelf)
The texture of cooked pieces is similar to that of chicken, thus the name. [8]
Morphology
Chicken-of-the-wood is a widespread and common fungus. It is rich yellow to orange in colour, which fades over time. It is commonly referred to as bracket-fungi due to its shape and shelf-like growth. Fruiting bodies can form up to 30 cm across. They are described to have a smooth, but uneven surface, with a tough, leathery texture.[9] The underside of the fungi has a stippled appearance because it is lined with a series of tubes where its spores (3-5 per mm) are released. [10]
Habitat
‘Chicken-of-the-woods’ is commonly found fruiting on living trees, logs or stumps. They are commonly found of conifers and hardwoods across North America. [11]
Edibility
Edible margins, found to cause gasrointestinal upsets in some individuals. [12] Finding and cooking 'chicken-of-the-woods'
Psilocybe cubensis "Magic Mushrooms"
Psilocybin mushrooms are more commonly known as 'shrooms' or 'magic mushrooms'. These mushrooms are ingested in Western countries for their psychoactive effects, however they have been used since prehistoric times for religious practices. [13] There are approximately 190 documented species of psilocybin mushrooms, with majority falling within the genus Psilocybe[14]. However, other genera that contain psilocybin mushrooms include:
- Agrocybe
- Conocybe
- Copelandia
- Galerina
- Gerronema
- Gymnopilus
- Hypholoma
- Inocybe
- Mycena
- Panaeolus
- Plutes
Edibility
Although deemed edible, ingestion of these mushrooms is not recommended due to the psychoactive effect of psilocybin, which is a hallucinogen produced by psilocybin mushrooms. There are no documented health benefits from taking these mushrooms, and are ingested solely for the euphoria caused. Use of these mushrooms is usually ingestion; however it may also be stewed into a tea, usually being cooked together with other ingredients because of their very bitter taste. Potency varies throughout species of Psilocybin mushrooms, and therefore dosage determines euphoria.
Side Effects
Fatal side effects or overdose from use of psilobycin mushrooms is relatively nonexistent; however there are side effects which include:
- Nausea
- Vomiting
- Muscle weakness
- Dizziness
- Lack of coordination
- Derealisation
- Hallucination
- Panic reactions
- Anxiety
- Psychosis
There are documented negative effects and experiences which include depression, anxiety, intense fear, disturbing hallucinations, as well as nightmares. These effects subside one the potency of the drug wears off. Long term abuse of these mushrooms can cause hallucinogen persisting perception disorder (HPPD), where hallucinations are seen long after the ingestion of mushrooms, however this is relatively rare in psilocybin users.
Legality
Although selling sores is allowed, mushrooms are illegal to possess, buy, sell, import or trade in Canada and other countries such as the United States.
Coprinus comatus "Shaggy Mane Mushroom"
Coprinus comatus is from the genus Coprinus within the Basidiomycota, and is commonly known as "Shaggy Mane Mushroom".
Morphology
This mushroom is characterised by a long white, bell-shaped cylindrical cap which is covered in a shaggy buff, as well as tan or brown scales. This is said to resemble the appearance of a British lawyer’s wig which gave it the nickname ‘lawyer’s wig'. When immature there is a ring that is seen around the stem of the mushroom, as the mushroom matures, the ring drops down the stem. Within twenty-four to forty-eight hours of maturation the gills and cap begins to self-digest, and liquefy to a black sticky substance. However this trait should not be confused with that of C. atramentarius. This mushroom usually fruits in large numbers, and is frequently seen along roadsides, meadows, lawns, parks etc. It is said to be best found following the first rains of the year.
Edibility
This mushroom is edible, and has a robust flavor, with the best flavour being ingestion before the mushroom begins to liquefy. The mushroom can still be eaten in its dissolving form, however it has a slimy texture, and is not as flavorful as though not in the liquefy stage or maturation. This mushroom has a watery and delicate flavour, but flavour can be enhanced by boiling off the water while cooking.
Side Effects
Although these mushrooms are safe and edible to eat, there are very rare cases where this mushroom can react when consumed with alcoholic beverages. The symptoms include:
- Red nose and ears
- Strange metallic taste
- Light heatedness
- Increased heartbeat
- Nausea
The cause of this reaction is from the toxins coprine and antabuse which interfere with alcohol metabolism. This interference causes an accumulation of acetaldehyde in the blood. Recovery from this phenomenon is usually fairly rapid, and spontaneous.
Pleurotus ostreatus – “Oyster mushroom”
Kingdom: Eumycota
Phylum: Basidiomycota
Class: Agarucomycotina
Order: Agaricales
Genus: Pleurotus
Species: ostreatus
Morphology
The Pleurotus ostreatus or “Oyster mushroom” can commonly be found on hardwood limbs, logs, and stumps widely distributed throughout North America, occasionally appearing on conifer wood and are a common favorite for mushroom hunters.
The soft and fleshy fruiting bodies of these fungi can be identified growing in thick clusters off of the host substrate with each cap tightly overlapping the last, often possessing a short off center stalk or lacking one altogether. P. ostreatus can also be found growing in two’s or three’s, beyond the common cluster formation.
The cap is dry and smooth, and can range in color considerably from light whitish grey to brown, brownish grey, bluish grey, and a blue black depending on season and temperatures. Underneath the stalk the presence of broad, thick white gills with veins between and extending down into the stalk if present can be observed, with spores often white to tinted lilac in color after moisture has escaped from the deposit.
Closely Related Species
The following species are very similar in morphological characteristics, and can easily be mistaken as Pleorotus ostreatus to the untrained eye:
- Pleurotus cornucopiae
- Pleurotus salignus
- Pleurotus columbinus
Edibility
The Pleurotus ostreatus is a delicious and popular mushroom for consumption when utilized creatively during food preparation. Common practices prior to use in meals however requires the removal of the tough cap base where it merges with the stalk, and for any wild harvested P. ostreatus to be submerged in water to remove potentially hiding beetles.
Growth
Pleurotus ostreatus is found widely distributed globally, with fruiting season dependent on the specific location and weather of the area.
Specific considerations can be found in various North American locals such as:
- Whitish fruiting form common on aspen wood in Lake States during the spring season, with colored form caps found on elm.
- Rocky Mountain and Pacific Coast areas can observe the fungi growing on alder, maple, and cotton wood.
- Irrigated sections of the West can find a gigantic form in irrigated poplar ditches.
- East of the Great Plains it is common in the summer season to find a small white form of Pleurotus ostreatus.
Agaricus brunnescens - Commercially Harvested Fungi
Kingdom: Eumycota
Phylum: Basidiomycota
Class: Agarucomycotina
Order: Agaricales
Genus: Agaricus
Species: brunnescens
Morphology
Agaricus brunnescens is a widely popular species of Agaricales fungi in commercial growth and harvest, originally named in 1900 by Dr. Peck and published as the commonly named Agaricus bisporus in 1946. Morphologically Agaricus brunnescens is identical to the original strand Agaricus campestris that it was differentiated from except in number of spores in the basidium and cap color, of which it is now pure white in contrast to the normally browning when bruised Agaricus campestris.
The gills of a young fruiting A. brunnescens fungi are pink at first, and eventually darken as the spores mature to produce a chocolate brown spore print. Final distinctive features of this species is the white partial veil on the underside of the cap, leaving a ring on the upper stalk
As previously mentioned another defining characteristic between the commercial A. brunnescens and closely related A. campestris found growing in the wild other than cap color is the number of spores located in the basidium. Following microscopic cellular analysis of the basidia by which cells are born, a sample of A. brunnescens will possess only 2 spores per basidium compared to the normal 4 spores per basidium in A. campestris.
Closely Related Species
Additional closely related species can be differentiated by the bruising color on their caps and include:
- Agaricus Silvicola and Agaricus arvensis – Yellow bruising stain
- Agaricus silvaticus and A. subrutilescens – Red or orange bruising stain
Edibility
Widely popular and commercially available mushroom due to its strong flavor and versatility of use when sautéed or added to red meat dishes, with many people preferring to harvest the wild Agaricus campestris during its more mature stages for their stronger flavor in comparison with the commercially available Agaricus brunnescens.
Growth
Although not native to North America, Agaricus brunnesces that has escaped from cultivation can be found in the wild growing in grass, especially near big cities like: Boston, New York, Philidelphia, and Washington.
More commonly encountered in the wild however is Agaricus campestris growing from grass, lawns, and soil containing manure often in fairy rings widely distributed globally from pastures at sea level to high mountains.
Fruiting season for A. brunnescens ranges from late summer into the fall depending on elevation and locality.
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