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	It is poisonous due to the toxins it contains. Therefore, it is not edible. <ref name=" Bonnet, MS and PW Basson. 2004. The toxicology of Amanita virosa: the destroying angel. Homeopathy. 93:216-220"/>		It is poisonous due to the toxins it contains. Therefore, it is not edible. <ref name=" Bonnet, MS and PW Basson. 2004. The toxicology of Amanita virosa: the destroying angel. Homeopathy. 93:216-220"/>
-	==Psilocybin Mushrooms 'Magic Mushrooms'==	+	==Psilocybin Mushrooms "Magic Mushrooms"==
		+	Psilocybin mushrooms are more commonly known as 'shrooms' or 'magic mushrooms'. These mushrooms are ingested in Western countries for their psychoactive effects, however they have been used since prehistoric times for religious practices. <ref name="Samorini, G. 1992. The oldest representations of hallucinogenic mushrooms in the world (Sahara Desert, 9000-7000 B.P.). Integration 2 (3): 69–78."/> There are approximately 190 documented species of psilocybin mushrooms, with majority falling within the genus ''Psilocybe''. However, other genera that contain psilocybin mushrooms include:
		+	*''Agrocybe''
		+	*''Conocybe''
		+	*''Copelandia''
		+	*''Galerina''
		+	*''Gerronema''
		+	*''Gymnopilus''
		+	*''Hypholoma''
		+	*''Inocybe''
		+	*''Mycena''
		+	*''Panaeolus''
		+	*''Plutes''
		+
		+	===Edibility===
		+
		+	Although deemed edible, ingestion of these mushrooms is not recommended due to the psychoactive effect of psilocybin, which is a hallucinogen produced by psilocybin mushrooms. There are no documented health benefits from taking these mushrooms, and are ingested solely for the euphoria caused. Use of these mushrooms is usually ingestion; however it may also be stewed into a tea, usually being cooked together with other ingredients because of their very bitter taste. Potency varies throughout species of Psilocybin mushrooms, and therefore dosage determines euphoria.
		+
		+	===Side Effects===
		+
		+	Fatal side effects or overdose from use of psilobycin mushrooms is relatively nonexistent; however there are side effects which include:
		+	*Nausea
		+	*Vomiting
		+	*Muscle weakness
		+	*Dizziness
		+	*Lack of coordination
		+	*Derealisation
		+	*Hallucination
		+	*Panic reactions
		+	*Anxiety
		+	*Psychosis
		+	There are documented negative effects and experiences which include depression, anxiety, intense fear, disturbing hallucinations, as well as nightmares. These effects subside one the potency of the drug wears off. Long term abuse of these mushrooms can cause hallucinogen persisting perception disorder (HPPD), where hallucinations are seen long after the ingestion of mushrooms, however this is relatively rare in psilocybin users.
		+
		+	===Legality===
		+
		+	Although selling sores is allowed, mushrooms are illegal to possess, buy, sell, import or trade in Canada and other countries such as the United States.
		+
		+	==''Coprinus comatus'' "Shaggy Mane Mushroom"==
		+
		+	Coprinus comatus is from the genus Coprinus within the Basidiomycota, and is commonly known as "Shaggy Mane Mushroom".
		+
		+	===Morphology===
		+
		+	This mushroom is characterised by a long white, bell-shaped cylindrical cap which is covered in a shaggy buff, as well as tan or brown scales. This is said to resemble the appearance of a British lawyer’s wig which gave it the nickname ‘lawyer’s wig'. When immature there is a ring that is seen around the stem of the mushroom, as the mushroom matures, the ring drops down the stem. Within twenty-four to forty-eight hours of maturation the gills and cap begins to self-digest, and liquefy to a black sticky substance. However this trait should not be confused with that of C. atramentarius. This mushroom usually fruits in large numbers, and is frequently seen along roadsides, meadows, lawns, parks etc[18]. It is said to be best found following the first rains of the year.
		+
		+	===Edibility===
		+
		+	This mushroom is edible, and has a robust flavor, with the best flavour being ingestion before the mushroom begins to liquefy. The mushroom can still be eaten in its dissolving form, however it has a slimy texture, and is not as flavorful as though not in the liquefy stage or maturation. This mushroom has a watery and delicate flavour, but flavour can be enhanced by boiling off the water while cooking.
		+
		+	===Side Effects===
		+
		+	Although these mushrooms are safe and edible to eat, there are very rare cases where this mushroom can react when consumed with alcoholic beverages. The symptoms include:
		+	*Red nose and ears
		+	*Strange metallic taste
		+	*Light heatedness
		+	*Increased heartbeat
		+	*Nausea
		+	The cause of this reaction is from the toxins coprine and antabuse which interfere with alcohol metabolism. This interference causes an accumulation of acetaldehyde in the blood. Recovery from this phenomenon is usually fairly rapid, and spontaneous.
-	Psilocybin mushrooms are more commonly known as 'shrooms' or 'magic mushrooms'. These mushrooms are ingested in Western countries for their psychoactive effects, however they have been used since prehistoric times for religious practices. <ref name="Samorini, G. 1992. The oldest representations of hallucinogenic mushrooms in the world (Sahara Desert, 9000-7000 B.P.). Integration 2 (3): 69–78."/> There are approximately 190 documented species of psilocybin mushrooms, with majority falling within the genus ''Psilocybe''. <ref name="Moncalvo, J.M., Vilgalys, R., Redhead, S.A., Johnson, J.E., James, T.Y., Catherine Aime, M., Hofstetter, V., Verduin, S.J., Larsson, E., Baroni, T.J., Greg Thorn, R., Jacobsson, S., Clémençon, H., and Miller, O.K. Jr. 2002. One hundred and seventeen clades of euagarics. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 23 (3): 357–400.> However, other genera that contain psilocybin mushrooms include: *''Agrocybe'' *''Conocybe'', ''Copelandia'', ''Galerina'', ''Gerronema'', ''Gymnopilus'', ''Hypholoma'', ''Inocybe'', ''Mycena'', ''Panaeolus'', and ''Plutes''. <ref name="Moncalvo, J.M., Vilgalys, R., Redhead, S.A.,et al. 2002. One hundred and seventeen clades of euagarics. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 23 (3): 357–400.>
	==References ==		==References ==
	Bonnet, MS and PW Basson. 2004. The toxicology of ''Amanita virosa'': the destroying angel. Homeopathy. 93:216-220		Bonnet, MS and PW Basson. 2004. The toxicology of ''Amanita virosa'': the destroying angel. Homeopathy. 93:216-220

---

Revision as of 11:49, 20 March 2013

Contents 1 Mycophagy Throughout History 1.1 Ancient Times 1.2 Antiquity 1.3 Mesoamerica 1.4 Beginnings of Commercialization 2 “Chicken-of-the-Woods” 2.1 (a.k.a Laetiporus conifericola, Laetiporus sulphurous, sulphur shelf) 2.2 Morphology 2.3 Habitat 2.4 Edibility 3 Amanita virosa “Destroying Angle” 3.1 Habitat 3.2 Poisons 3.3 Symptoms 3.4 Edibility 4 Psilocybin Mushrooms "Magic Mushrooms" 4.1 Edibility 4.2 Side Effects 4.3 Legality 5 Coprinus comatus "Shaggy Mane Mushroom" 5.1 Morphology 5.2 Edibility 5.3 Side Effects 6 References

Mycophagy Throughout History

Ancient Times

Fungi has been used as a food source by humans for millenia. Archaeological records show edible mushroom fossils along with humans who lived approximately 13000 years ago in what is now modern day Chile ^[1]. A more thorough record of mushrooms as a food source can be dated back to texts written during the Han Dynasty in ancient China (206 BCE-220 CE). In ancient societies around the globe, the mushroom was not only prized for its medicinal properties, but it was also believed to have magical properties associated with immortality.

Emperor Wu of the Han dynasty went so far as to call for large expeditions to attempt to find these elusive mythological Fungi ^[2]. Fungi shared this mythical status in ancient Egypt. Hieroglyphic depictions of fungi dating back to 4500 BCE can be seen throughout Egypt. They can even be found in the Book of the Dead where they are described as being the "food of the Gods" ^[3]. The Pharaohs explicitly outlawed the consumption of fungi among the common populous as they were seen as only fit for royal consumption ^[4].

Antiquity

In Ancient Greek and Roman times, the mushroom was also a highly prized and was mainly consumed by the upper class. A particular favourite of the Emperors of Rome was the Amanite caesarea or Caesar's Mushroom, regularly on the menu at grand feasts. Unfortunately, its strong resemblance to poisonous varieties made it a relatively common and effective means of assassination. The poison's symptoms would manifest the following day and the victim would die in a week's time ^[5].

Mesoamerica

Of the few Mayan texts which survived the coming of the Spanish Conquistadors, there are hieroglyphics depicting what appears to be a man outstretching an offering of a mushroom to some sort of Deity. This suggests that mushrooms were integral to religious ceremony amongst the ancient Mayan peoples ^[6].

Beginnings of Commercialization

Fungi was first intentionally grown as a crop around 600 CE. In the seventeenth century, mushrooms were first cultivated by the addition of spore laden manure into fresh piles of manure. In 1886 the first sterile techniques were used in order to ensure that only the fungi in question would grow on the substrate. In 1905, it was first discovered that one could produce fungi directly from tissues and not from spores themselves. These discoveries along with the prospects of indoor mushroom production paved the way for the manufacturing techniques used today for mass production ^[7].

“Chicken-of-the-Woods”

(a.k.a Laetiporus conifericola, Laetiporus sulphurous, sulphur shelf)

The texture of cooked pieces is similar to that of chicken, thus the name. ^[8]

Morphology

Chicken-of-the-wood is a widespread and common fungus. It is rich yellow to orange in colour, which fades over time. It is commonly referred to as bracket-fungi due to its shape and shelf-like growth. Fruiting bodies can form up to 30 cm across. They are described to have a smooth, but uneven surface, with a tough, leathery texture.^[9] The underside of the fungi has a stippled appearance because it is lined with a series of tubes where its spores (3-5 per mm) are released. ^[10]

Habitat

‘Chicken-of-the-woods’ is commonly found fruiting on living trees, logs or stumps. They are commonly found of conifers and hardwoods across North America. ^[11]

Edibility

Edible margins, found to cause gasrointestinal upsets in some individuals. ^[12] Finding and cooking 'chicken-of-the-woods'

Amanita virosa “Destroying Angle”

Amanita virosa is commonly referred to as Destroying Angel belongs to the Phylum Eumycophyta, Class Basidiomycetes, Order Agaricales and Family Amanitaceae. The name ‘amanita’ is derived from the Greek meaning ‘a kind of fungus’, and ‘virosa’ is derived from the Latin ‘virosus’ meaning a ‘fetid’ or ‘poisonous’. ^[13]

The name Destroying Angel is referred to the fact that A. virosa is pure white like an angel’s veil but it is poisonous. ^[13] Destroying Angle is white, shinny and has convex cap; Destroying Angle is sticky when it’s wet. Underneath the cap there is lots of that is pure white. Also the stipe is rough but has delicate cotton-like shaggy tufts. ^[13]

Its cap is a bell-shaped and slimy surface. It has a very strong unpleasant odour. As Destroying Angle matures, it becomes drier with a silky sheen, still white but becomes more tinged with yellow or brown colour in the center of its cap. A. virosa spores are white and about 8-9 mm in diameters with a length-to-width being less than 1.25mm. ^[13]

Habitat

Destroying Angel is often found in hardwood, mixed or/and leafy woods. It is found in principally in coniferous forests and in hardwood forests. It is also found on poor soil and its characteristic occurrence is sporadic and solitary. Destroying Angle appears in midsummer to autumn and is less common in cold season. ^[13]

Poisons

The toxic peptide found in ‘’A. virosa’’ is the Virotoxins. Virotoxins are monocyclic heptapeptides, which contains D-serine instead of L-cysteine. ^[13] Virotoxins has six toxic elements which are: Viroidin, Viroisin, Deoxoviroisin, Ala-viroidin, Ala-desoxoviroidin and Deoxoviroidin. Also another toxin found in A. virosa is Amaninamide. ^[13] These toxins are very complex polypeptides molecules, which are composed of amino acids. These amino acids cause the breakdown of liver cells. ^[13]

Symptoms

The affects on these toxins on individuals can be very severe. The symptoms usually start after 12 hours of consumption, such symptoms includes vomiting, nausea, pale skin, drowsiness, abdominal pain, diarrhea, spasm in legs and fever. When these symptoms return it is due to the action of ‘’A. virosa’’, which starts to concentrate more on blood cells, kidneys and liver. Without treatment coma or death may occur. ^[13]

Edibility

It is poisonous due to the toxins it contains. Therefore, it is not edible. ^[13]

Psilocybin Mushrooms "Magic Mushrooms"

Psilocybin mushrooms are more commonly known as 'shrooms' or 'magic mushrooms'. These mushrooms are ingested in Western countries for their psychoactive effects, however they have been used since prehistoric times for religious practices. ^[14] There are approximately 190 documented species of psilocybin mushrooms, with majority falling within the genus Psilocybe. However, other genera that contain psilocybin mushrooms include:

• Agrocybe
• Conocybe
• Copelandia
• Galerina
• Gerronema
• Gymnopilus
• Hypholoma
• Inocybe
• Mycena
• Panaeolus
• Plutes

Edibility

Although deemed edible, ingestion of these mushrooms is not recommended due to the psychoactive effect of psilocybin, which is a hallucinogen produced by psilocybin mushrooms. There are no documented health benefits from taking these mushrooms, and are ingested solely for the euphoria caused. Use of these mushrooms is usually ingestion; however it may also be stewed into a tea, usually being cooked together with other ingredients because of their very bitter taste. Potency varies throughout species of Psilocybin mushrooms, and therefore dosage determines euphoria.

Side Effects

Fatal side effects or overdose from use of psilobycin mushrooms is relatively nonexistent; however there are side effects which include:

• Nausea
• Vomiting
• Muscle weakness
• Dizziness
• Lack of coordination
• Derealisation
• Hallucination
• Panic reactions
• Anxiety
• Psychosis

There are documented negative effects and experiences which include depression, anxiety, intense fear, disturbing hallucinations, as well as nightmares. These effects subside one the potency of the drug wears off. Long term abuse of these mushrooms can cause hallucinogen persisting perception disorder (HPPD), where hallucinations are seen long after the ingestion of mushrooms, however this is relatively rare in psilocybin users.

Legality

Although selling sores is allowed, mushrooms are illegal to possess, buy, sell, import or trade in Canada and other countries such as the United States.

Coprinus comatus "Shaggy Mane Mushroom"

Coprinus comatus is from the genus Coprinus within the Basidiomycota, and is commonly known as "Shaggy Mane Mushroom".

Morphology

This mushroom is characterised by a long white, bell-shaped cylindrical cap which is covered in a shaggy buff, as well as tan or brown scales. This is said to resemble the appearance of a British lawyer’s wig which gave it the nickname ‘lawyer’s wig'. When immature there is a ring that is seen around the stem of the mushroom, as the mushroom matures, the ring drops down the stem. Within twenty-four to forty-eight hours of maturation the gills and cap begins to self-digest, and liquefy to a black sticky substance. However this trait should not be confused with that of C. atramentarius. This mushroom usually fruits in large numbers, and is frequently seen along roadsides, meadows, lawns, parks etc[18]. It is said to be best found following the first rains of the year.

Edibility

This mushroom is edible, and has a robust flavor, with the best flavour being ingestion before the mushroom begins to liquefy. The mushroom can still be eaten in its dissolving form, however it has a slimy texture, and is not as flavorful as though not in the liquefy stage or maturation. This mushroom has a watery and delicate flavour, but flavour can be enhanced by boiling off the water while cooking.

Side Effects

Although these mushrooms are safe and edible to eat, there are very rare cases where this mushroom can react when consumed with alcoholic beverages. The symptoms include:

• Red nose and ears
• Strange metallic taste
• Light heatedness
• Increased heartbeat
• Nausea

The cause of this reaction is from the toxins coprine and antabuse which interfere with alcohol metabolism. This interference causes an accumulation of acetaldehyde in the blood. Recovery from this phenomenon is usually fairly rapid, and spontaneous.

References

Bonnet, MS and PW Basson. 2004. The toxicology of Amanita virosa: the destroying angel. Homeopathy. 93:216-220