Fungi Uses in Pest Management
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| - | <p>[[Definitions|Entomopathogens]] are key components for integrated pest management solutions <ref name="Milner and Pereira"/>. There is a large market for urban pest control that has been dominated by the use of pesticides and insecticides <ref name="Milner and Pereira"/>. These chemical pesticides pose a danger not only to the person applying them, but other people, or pets, which may come into contact with the chemicals in an urban environment <ref name="Milner and Pereira"/>. Previously used in agricultural settings as [[Definitions|deterrents]], fungi such as [[Species|''Beauveria bassiana'']], [[Species|''Metarhizium anisopliae'']] and [[Species|''Paecilomyces fumosoroseus'']] may have possible pest control applications in urban settings as well <ref name="Lenz"/>. </p> | + | <p>[[Definitions|Entomopathogens]] are key components for integrated pest management solutions <ref name="Milner and Pereira"> Milner, RJ. and Pereira RM. (2007). Microbial control of urban pests - cockroaches, ants and termites. Field Manual of Techniques in Invertebrate Pathology. 20(2):695-711<ref/>. There is a large market for urban pest control that has been dominated by the use of pesticides and insecticides <ref name="Milner and Pereira"/>. These chemical pesticides pose a danger not only to the person applying them, but other people, or pets, which may come into contact with the chemicals in an urban environment <ref name="Milner and Pereira"/>. Previously used in agricultural settings as [[Definitions|deterrents]], fungi such as [[Species|''Beauveria bassiana'']], [[Species|''Metarhizium anisopliae'']] and [[Species|''Paecilomyces fumosoroseus'']] may have possible pest control applications in urban settings as well <ref name="Lenz"><ref/>. </p> |
| ==Advantages and Disadvantages== | ==Advantages and Disadvantages== | ||
Revision as of 23:59, 21 March 2013
Fungi are useful biological controls for pests in crops and urban environments urban environments and are commercially used since 1981 [1]. They can be used as herbicide, insecticide and fungicide. Mycopesticides are interesting organic alternatives to chemical pesticides due to their specificity and safety for the environment [2] and share their advantages and disadvantages with other biopesticides[2]. Lecanicillium lecanii, Beauveria bassiana and Trichoderma spp. are amongst the most commonly used species and have been widely studied in spite of the short history of this field of study. With the growing enthusiasm for organic farming and justified environmental concerns in the population, mycopesticide have a definitely a bright future[3].
Contents |
History
For over 100 years, scientists have been studying many different species of fungi with entomopathogenic characteristics but the use of these organisms in the field has been relatively elusive. Many of these fungal organisms are not only entomopathogens, but also aid in general plant growth. Since the late 1940's, chemical insecticides has been the main tool that growers have utilized, in order to control potentially damaging pests and diseases. Some of the earliest recorded studies of entomopathogenic fungi, came in the early 1800 when the silkworm industry in France was devastated by Botrytis bassiana. This finding is what lead to further research and use of fungal insect pathogens to manage a wide range of pests.
The use of Entomopathogenic fungi in pest management covers a wide variety of Eumycota subdivisions. These subdivisions of Eumycota include; Mastigomycotina, Zygomycotina, Ascomycotina, and Deuteromycotina [4] In 1981, the first mycoinsectiside registered in the U.S. was Hirsutella thompsonii and was given the registered name; Mycar. This species has been noted to cause epizootics as early as 1920 in some species of spider mites [1]
With the rising cost of synthetic chemical pesticides and increasing cases of pesticide resistance, the search for natural biologically based forms of pest management has been a key area of research for the last decade. With the world population rising over 7 billion and the drastic effects of climate change, the need for alternative forms of pest control will become essential. Although insects are key in the performance of many ecosystems, they play a large role in the 35 billion dollars worth of crop that is lost in the United States each year [5]
There is enormous potential for pest and vector control in pest management in the future due to an increasing amount of knowledge in the area of mycology. [6]
Biopesticides in Agriculture
Insect and weed management in important crops... sustainable agriculture, as a replacement for
Fungi used as a Herbicide
See main article: Fungi used as a Herbicide
Fungi can be used as a herbicide to exterminate specific weeds and other plants that are detrimental to the effective growth of crops. In order to use a fungus for this purpose, a mycoherbicide is created with the fungi as its active ingredient. The use of mycoherbicides focus on the theory of the disease triangle. The disease triangle breaks down the conditions that need to be apparent for infection to occur, those are environment, pathogen and host. The following will fall under one or more of these categories. Mycoherbicides act by releasing phytopathogens to suppress weed growth. The phytopathogens release phytotoxins that can kill weeds in up to five weeks time. A common phytotoxin found in the fungi species Penicillium is vulculic acid. The fungi species most commonly used as herbicides in North America are Collectrichum gloeosporioides (Collego®) and Phytophthora palmivoraa (De Vine®).A specific weed strain commonly known as arrowhead (Sagitaria trifolia) is the cause of the largest rice plantation problem in Iran. Arrowhead is notably resistant to chemical herbicides. Collego® is used in the USA as the solution to arrowhead. Other types of fungi that can be used as mycoherbicides are rusts and mildews. These fungi use spore distribution to cause infection in their host plants.
Fungi used as an Insecticide
See main article: Fungi used as a Insecticide
Certain species of fungi can act as parasites of insect. When a fungus is used as insecticides, it is called mycoinsecticide. [7]. In recent years, crop protection has been trending towards integrated pest management (IPM) using bacteria and fungi as insecticides. Approximately 750 species of fungi are pathogenic to insects and only 12 are being utilized as insecticides [7]. Two prominent species of fungi used as insecticides are Beauveria bassiana, and Metarhizium anisopliae. Mycoinsecticides function by first being applied to the insects in spray form. The fungi then use their hyphae to burrow into the insects. The hyphae spread the insectotoxins throughout the insect to activate them, eventually leading to the the insect’s death.
Fungi used as a Fungicide
See main article: Fungi used as a Fungicide
Biopesticides in Urban Environments
See main article: Fungi uses in Urban Environments
Entomopathogens are key components for integrated pest management solutions [8]
Novel Uses of Mycopesticides
Throughout history, there have been many instances of harmful pesticides being released into the environment without fully understanding the implications of such actions. One example of this was the use of DDT, a chemical that has an extremely long half-life and a high degree of bioaccumulation directly linked to a high lipophilicity, which causes eggshell thinning in several birds, including birds of prey (Tucker and Haegele, 1970). With global environmental awareness increasing, there has been a greater demand for less harmful pesticides. An alternative of pesticides, biopesticides, generally have a lower toxicity, increased safety, as well as a high efficacy in pest control (Market Publishers, 2012).
Consequently, the demand and commercial application of microbial biopesticide has increased proportionally to 0.98% of the total worldwide pesticide market, growing at a rate of just over 13% per annum, representing an increase of 47% between 2004/2005 and 2007/2008 (CPL Scientific, 2010). Fungal biopesticides represent a large proportion of the rapidly growing sector of pest management.
Several commercial applications of mycopestocides have been investigated, as described below.
Culicoides nubeculosus Biting Midge and the Bluetongue virus
Adult House Fly management in poultry farms using Beauveria bassiana
Controlling Tick Populations in Cattle
Species
Effective pest management relies on the appropriate matching of a target species with the pathogenic fungal species[9]. Many species and target combinations have been included and are summarized in the article below.
See main article: Species
Definitions
See main article: Definitions
Notes and References
- ↑ 1.0 1.1 test
- ↑ 2.0 2.1 Moore D., Robson G.D., Trinci A.P.J. (2011). 21st CENTURY GUIDE TO FUNGI. Cambridge University Press:New York.
- ↑ just waiting for pauls citation stuff here
- ↑ Rechcigl. E.J. and Rechcigl. N.A.(2000) 'BIOLOGICAL and BIOTECHNILOGICAL CONTROL of INSECT PESTS'pg 49-51 Pg
- ↑ P. A. Shah, J. K. Pell.(2003) Fungi as Biological Control Agents. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology, Volume 61, Issue 5-6, pp 413-423.
- ↑ k. Seigfried. (1998) Use of Fungi for Pest Control in Sustainable Agriculture.. Swiss Fédéral Research Station for Agroecology and Agriculture, Reckenholz, CH-8046 Zurich. Phytoprotection, vol. 79, n° 4, 1998, p. 56-60.
- ↑ 7.0 7.1 Hall. and Franklin R. 1998. Mycoinsecticides on Field Crops - Production, Delivery, and Use of Mycoinsecticides for Control of Insect Pests on Field Crops. Biopesticides: "Use and Delivery" 233-270
- ↑ Milner, RJ. and Pereira RM. (2007). Microbial control of urban pests - cockroaches, ants and termites. Field Manual of Techniques in Invertebrate Pathology. 20(2):695-711<ref></ref>. There is a large market for urban pest control that has been dominated by the use of pesticides and insecticides <ref></ref>. These chemical pesticides pose a danger not only to the person applying them, but other people, or pets, which may come into contact with the chemicals in an urban environment <ref></ref>. Previously used in agricultural settings as deterrents, fungi such as Beauveria bassiana, Metarhizium anisopliae and Paecilomyces fumosoroseus may have possible pest control applications in urban settings as well <ref><ref/>. </p> ==Advantages and Disadvantages== ''See main article'': [[Pros and Cons]] <p>jhgjhgjhgj<p> [[Definitions|epizootics]] as early as 1920 in some species of spider mites <ref>Rechcigl E.J., Rechcigl N.A.(2000)Biological and Biotechnological Controls of INSECT PESTS Pg 49-51.</li> <li id="_note-3">[[#_ref-3|↑]] Singh, A., Parmar, N., & Kuhad, R. (2011). Bioaugmentation, biostimulation and biocontrol [electronic resource] / Ajay Singh, Nagina Parmar, Ramesh C. Kuhad, editors. Berlin ; Heidelberg ; New York : Springer, c2011.</li></ol></ref>
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