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| 11. Hong, L, Minghe, M, Xiaowei, H, Xuan, L, Keqin, Z. 2004. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21148944 Coprinus comatus: A basidiomycete fungus forms novel spiny structures and infects nematode] Mycologia 96: 1218-1224. | 11. Hong, L, Minghe, M, Xiaowei, H, Xuan, L, Keqin, Z. 2004. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21148944 Coprinus comatus: A basidiomycete fungus forms novel spiny structures and infects nematode] Mycologia 96: 1218-1224. | ||
| - | 12. Redhead, S.A., Vilgalys, R., Moncalvo, J.M., Johnson, J., and Hopple, J.S.Jr. 2001. Coprinus Pers. and the disposition of Coprinus species sensu lato. Taxon 50 (1): 203–41. | + | 12. Redhead, S.A., Vilgalys, R., Moncalvo, J.M., Johnson, J., and Hopple, J.S.Jr. 2001. [http://www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/1224525?uid=3739448&uid=2129&uid=2&uid=70&uid=3737720&uid=4&sid=21101904738971 Coprinus Pers. and the disposition of Coprinus species sensu lato.] Taxon 50 (1): 203–41. |
| 13. Jackson, H. A. C. Pomerleau, R. (1951) ''Mushrooms of Eastern Canada and the United States: How to recognize and prepare the edible varieties.'' New York, NY: Service Agency, Inc. Pages: 11-26, 33-38, 89-90, 185. | 13. Jackson, H. A. C. Pomerleau, R. (1951) ''Mushrooms of Eastern Canada and the United States: How to recognize and prepare the edible varieties.'' New York, NY: Service Agency, Inc. Pages: 11-26, 33-38, 89-90, 185. | ||
Revision as of 18:42, 21 March 2013
Contents |
Introduction
Fungi provide essential support for all communities of multicellular organisms. Fungi recycle the biomass of wood and leaves, including substances such as lignin, which other organisms may not be able to digest (Foster, John. W. et al, 2009). Underground fungal filaments called mycorrhizae extend the root systems of most plants, which form nutrition, that interconnect that plant community. Fungi as ferments plant materials, meanwhile pathogenic fungi infect plants and animals [1]. which form nutrition, that interconnect....i think should say network rather than nutrition. The last sentence i think is a little confusing, I think I would word it a little differently. Maybe say: Fungi are capable of fermenting plant material, as well as being pathogenic to both plant and animal species
At the tip of a fungal hypha, the cell membrane expands by incorporating vesicles, which are generated by the endoplasmic reticulum. When the vesicle fuses, it provides phospholipids and proteins to extend its membrane surface area, which allows the cytoplasm to expand rapidly [1]. The absorption zone for hypha is right behind its tip. The absorption zone takes in nutrients from the neighboring medium. It is also important to notice that, behind the absorption zone, the older part of the hypha collect and stores nutrition as well [1]. Fungi have number of different species. Each species of fungi shows different forms, from the common mushrooms, fruiting bodies that can weigh several pounds, to the mycelia of pathogens and the symbiotic partners of algae in lichens [1]. Fungi have number of different species. Each species of fungi shows different forms, from the common mushrooms, fruiting bodies that can weigh several pounds, to the mycelia of pathogens and the symbiotic partners of algae in lichens.....I think I would make this into one sentence: There is an extensive number of fungal species, with each species differing in form, from the common mushrooms, fruiting bodies that can weigh several pounds, to the mycelia of pathogens and the symbiotic partners of algae in lichens.
Fungi have four major phyla; such phylum includes Basidiomycota, Zygomycota, Ascomycota and Chytridiomycota.
Basidiomycetes have cells that are paired nuclei and form mushrooms. They are well known for their exceptional size and diversity of above ground fruiting bodies known as “true” mushrooms [1]. Mushrooms offer a flavorful source of protein and minerals, albeit at the risk of consuming the deadly toxins, which are produced by some species. The protein content of edible mushrooms can be as high as 25% dry weight, similar to that of whole milk (per dry weight), and includes all essential dietary amino acids [1].
It is important to note there are also Poisonous and Hallucinogenic Fungi which produce deadly poisons such as alpha-amanitin, which inhibits RNA polymerase 2. Alph-amanitin is produced by Amanita, known as “Destroying Angel”; its taste is often fatal. Other mushrooms include Portobello, which is one of the more priced mushrooms around the world [1]. Different types of mushrooms grow in different season, some grow in soil, while others such as Piptoporus grows on tree bark.
Mycophagy Throughout History
Ancient Times
Fungi has been used as a food source by humans for millenia. Archaeological records show edible mushroom fossils along with humans who lived approximately 13000 years ago in what is now modern day Chile [2]. A more thorough record of mushrooms as a food source can be dated back to texts written during the Han Dynasty in ancient China (206 BCE-220 CE). In ancient societies around the globe, fungi was not only prized for its medicinal properties, but it was also believed to have magical properties associated with immortality.
Emperor Wu of the Han dynasty went so far as to call for large expeditions to attempt to find these elusive mythological Fungi [3]. Fungi shared this mythical status in ancient Egypt. Hieroglyphic depictions of fungi dating back to 4500 BCE can be seen throughout the area. They can even be found in the Book of the Dead where they are described as being the "food of the Gods" [4]. The Pharaohs explicitly outlawed the consumption of fungi amongst the common populous as they were seen as only fit for royal consumption [5].
Antiquity
In Ancient Greek and Roman times, the mushroom was also a highly prized and was mainly consumed by the upper class. A particular favourite of the Emperors of Rome was the Amanite caesarea or Caesar's Mushroom, regularly on the menu at grand feasts. Unfortunately, its strong resemblance to poisonous varieties made it a relatively common and effective means of assassination. The poison's symptoms would manifest the following day and the victim would die in a week's time [6].
Mesoamerica
Of the few Mayan texts which survived the arrival of the Spanish Conquistadors, there are hieroglyphics depicting what appears to be a man outstretching an offering of a mushroom to some sort of Deity. This suggests that mushrooms were integral to religious ceremony amongst the ancient Mayan peoples [7].
Beginnings of Commercialization
Fungi was first intentionally grown as a crop around 600 CE. In the seventeenth century, mushrooms were first cultivated by the addition of spore laden manure into fresh piles of manure. In 1886 the first sterile techniques were used in order to ensure that only the desired fungi would grow on the substrate. In 1905, it was first discovered that one could produce fungi directly from tissues and not from spores themselves. These discoveries along with the prospects of indoor mushroom production paved the way for the manufacturing techniques used today for mass production [8].
Commercial Fungi Production
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“Chicken-of-the-Woods”
(a.k.a Laetiporus conifericola, Laetiporus sulphurous, sulphur shelf)
The texture of cooked pieces is similar to that of chicken, thus the name. [9]
Morphology
Chicken-of-the-woods is a widespread and common fungus. It is rich yellow to orange in colour, which fades over time. It is commonly referred to as bracket-fungi due to its shape and shelf-like growth. Fruiting bodies can form up to 30 cm across. They are described to have a smooth, but uneven surface, with a tough, leathery texture.[10] The underside of the fungi has a stippled appearance because it is lined with a series of tubes where its spores (3-5 per mm) are released. [10]
Habitat
‘Chicken-of-the-woods’ is commonly found fruiting on living trees, logs or stumps. They are commonly found of conifers and hardwoods across North America. [9]
Edibility
Edible margins, found to cause gasrointestinal upsets in some individuals. [9] Finding and cooking 'chicken-of-the-woods'
Coprinus comatus "Shaggy Mane Mushroom"
Kingdom: Fungi
Phylum: Basidiomycota
Class: Agaricomycetes
Order: Agaricales
Genus: Coprinus
Species: C. comatus
Coprinus comatus is from the genus Coprinus within the Basidiomycota, and is commonly known as "Shaggy Mane Mushroom".
Morphology
This mushroom is characterised by a long white, bell-shaped cylindrical cap which is covered in a shaggy buff, as well as tan or brown scales. This is said to resemble the appearance of a British lawyer’s wig which gave it the nickname ‘lawyer’s wig'[11]. When immature there is a ring that is seen around the stem of the mushroom, as the mushroom matures, the ring drops down the stem. Within twenty-four to forty-eight hours of maturation the gills and cap begins to self-digest, and liquefy to a black sticky substance. However this trait should not be confused with that of C. atramentarius[11]. This mushroom usually fruits in large numbers, and is frequently seen along roadsides, meadows, lawns, parks etc. It is said to be best found following the first rains of the year[11].
Edibility
This mushroom is edible, and has a robust flavor, with the best flavour being ingestion before the mushroom begins to liquefy[11]. The mushroom can still be eaten in its dissolving form, however it has a slimy texture, and is not as flavorful as though not in the liquefy stage or maturation. This mushroom has a watery and delicate flavour, but flavour can be enhanced by boiling off the water while cooking[11].
Side Effects
Although these mushrooms are safe and edible to eat, there are very rare cases where this mushroom can react when consumed with alcoholic beverages[12]. The symptoms include[12]:
- Red nose and ears
- Strange metallic taste
- Light heatedness
- Increased heartbeat
- Nausea
The cause of this reaction is from the toxins coprine and antabuse which interfere with alcohol metabolism. This interference causes an accumulation of acetaldehyde in the blood. Recovery from this phenomenon is usually fairly rapid, and spontaneous.
Pleurotus ostreatus – “Oyster mushroom”
Morphology
The Pleurotus ostreatus or “Oyster mushroom” can commonly be found on hardwood limbs, logs, and stumps widely distributed throughout North America, occasionally appearing on conifer wood and are a common favorite for mushroom hunters. [13]
The soft and fleshy fruiting bodies of these fungi can be identified growing in thick clusters off of the host substrate with each cap tightly overlapping the last, often possessing a short off center stalk or lacking one altogether. P. ostreatus can also be found growing in two’s or three’s, beyond the common cluster formation. [14]
The cap is dry and smooth, and can range in color considerably from light whitish grey to brown, brownish grey, bluish grey, and a blue black depending on season and temperatures. Underneath the stalk the presence of broad, thick white gills with veins between and extending down into the stalk if present can be observed, with spores often white to tinted lilac in color after moisture has escaped from the deposit. [14]
Closely Related Species
The following species are very similar in morphological characteristics, and can easily be mistaken as Pleorotus ostreatus to the untrained eye [13]:
- Pleurotus cornucopiae
- Pleurotus salignus
- Pleurotus columbinus
Growth
Pleurotus ostreatus is found widely distributed globally, with fruiting season dependent on the specific location and weather of the area.[13]
Specific considerations can be found in various North American locals such as:
- Whitish fruiting form common on aspen wood in Lake States during the spring season, with colored form caps found on elm.
- Rocky Mountain and Pacific Coast areas can observe the fungi growing on alder, maple, and cotton wood.
- Irrigated sections of the West can find a gigantic form in irrigated poplar ditches.
- East of the Great Plains it is common in the summer season to find a small white form of Pleurotus ostreatus.
Edibility
The Pleurotus ostreatus is a delicious and popular mushroom for consumption when utilized creatively during food preparation. Common practices prior to use in meals however requires the removal of the tough cap base where it merges with the stalk, and for any wild harvested P. ostreatus to be submerged in water to remove potentially hiding beetles. [13]
Agaricus brunnescens - Commercially Harvested Fungi
Morphology
Agaricus brunnescens is a widely popular species of Agaricales fungi in commercial growth and harvest, originally named in 1900 by Dr. Peck and published as the commonly named Agaricus bisporus in 1946. Morphologically Agaricus brunnescens is identical to the original strand Agaricus campestris that it was differentiated from except in number of spores in the basidium and cap color, of which it is now pure white in contrast to the normally browning when bruised Agaricus campestris [14].
The gills of a young fruiting A. brunnescens fungi are pink at first, and eventually darken as the spores mature to produce a chocolate brown spore print. Final distinctive features of this species is the white partial veil on the underside of the cap, leaving a ring on the upper stalk[15].
As previously mentioned another defining characteristic between the commercial A. brunnescens and closely related A. campestris found growing in the wild other than cap color is the number of spores located in the basidium. Following microscopic cellular analysis of the basidia by which cells are born, a sample of A. brunnescens will possess only 2 spores per basidium compared to the normal 4 spores per basidium in A. campestris [13].
Closely Related Species
Additional closely related species can be differentiated by the bruising color on their caps and include [13]:
- Agaricus Silvicola and Agaricus arvensis – Yellow bruising stain
- Agaricus silvaticus and A. subrutilescens – Red or orange bruising stain
Growth
Although not native to North America, Agaricus brunnesces that has escaped from cultivation can be found in the wild growing in grass, especially near big cities like: Boston, New York, Philidelphia, and Washington [14].
More commonly encountered in the wild however is Agaricus campestris growing from grass, lawns, and soil containing manure often in fairy rings widely distributed globally from pastures at sea level to high mountains[14].
Fruiting season for A. brunnescens ranges from late summer into the fall depending on elevation and locality[14].
Edibility
Widely popular and commercially available mushroom due to its strong flavor and versatility of use when sautéed or added to red meat dishes, with many people preferring to harvest the wild Agaricus campestris during its more mature stages for their stronger flavor in comparison with the commercially available Agaricus brunnescens [13].
Notes and References
1. Foster, John. W., Slonczewski, Joan. L. 2009. Microbiology. An Evolving Science (2nd Ed.)W. W. Norton & Company.
2. Kumari D, Achal V. (2008) Effect of different substrates on the production and non-enzymatic antioxidant activity of Pleurotus ostreatus (Oyster mushroom). Life Science Journal 5(3):73-6
3. Peerenboom, Randall P. (1993), Law and Morality in Ancient China: The Silk Manuscripts of Huang-Lao. SUNY Press. Richey, Jeffrey L. (2006) pg. 255
4. Abdel-Azeem AM.(2010) The history, fungal biodiversity, conservation, and future perspectives for mycology in Egypt. IMA Fungus 1(2):123-42
5. Srivastava A, Singh A, Raja RB, Arunachalam KD. (2010) Shelf-life extension of fresh Mushrooms(Agaricus bisporus) by application of Tomato paste. Int J Eng Sci Tech 2(5):783-86
6. Jordan, Peter (2006) Field Guide Edible Mushrooms of Britain and Europe, London, UK, New Holland Publishers Ltd Pg. 10
7. Lowy, B. (1972) Mushroom Symbolism in Maya Codices. Mycologia 64(4): pp 816-21
8. Miles PG, Chang ST. (2004) Mushrooms: Cultivation, Nutritional Value, Medicinal Effect, and Environmental Impact (2nd Ed.) Boca Raton, FL. CRC Press. Pg 159
9. Davis, M.R., Menge, R.A., & Sommer, R. Field Guide to Mushrooms of Western North America. California: University of California Press, 2012
10. Barron, George. Mushrooms of Ontario and Eastern Canada. Edmonton: Lone Pine, 1999.
11. Hong, L, Minghe, M, Xiaowei, H, Xuan, L, Keqin, Z. 2004. Coprinus comatus: A basidiomycete fungus forms novel spiny structures and infects nematode Mycologia 96: 1218-1224.
12. Redhead, S.A., Vilgalys, R., Moncalvo, J.M., Johnson, J., and Hopple, J.S.Jr. 2001. Coprinus Pers. and the disposition of Coprinus species sensu lato. Taxon 50 (1): 203–41.
13. Jackson, H. A. C. Pomerleau, R. (1951) Mushrooms of Eastern Canada and the United States: How to recognize and prepare the edible varieties. New York, NY: Service Agency, Inc. Pages: 11-26, 33-38, 89-90, 185.
14. Miller, H. H. Miller, O. K. Jr. (1980) Mushrooms in color (First ed.). Toronto, ON and Vancouver, BC: Irwin & Company Limited. Pages: vii-xii, 172-177, 207-210, 256-263
15. Smith, A. H. (1964) The mushroom hunter’s field guide revised and enlarged (Rev. ed.). St. Ann Arbor, MI and Toronto, ON: University of Michigan Press and Ambassador Books Limited. Pages: 1-7 and 152.
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