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	Glucose found in the grains is the starting material for the process known as ''Glycolysis''. Glycolysis is the anaerobic catabolism of glucose. This process is a series of electron transfers which lead to the production of two pyruvic acid molecules. These molecules can become ethanol and carbon dioxide. Glycolysis produces NADH; which is an electron transport molecule. The surplus of this molecule must be used up, this is why oxidation occurs. This oxidation finalizes the reaction moving the reaction from pyruvate to ethanol.		Glucose found in the grains is the starting material for the process known as ''Glycolysis''. Glycolysis is the anaerobic catabolism of glucose. This process is a series of electron transfers which lead to the production of two pyruvic acid molecules. These molecules can become ethanol and carbon dioxide. Glycolysis produces NADH; which is an electron transport molecule. The surplus of this molecule must be used up, this is why oxidation occurs. This oxidation finalizes the reaction moving the reaction from pyruvate to ethanol.
-	''Summary of Process'''	+	'''Summary of Process'''
		+
	''1.'' Carbon dioxide is released from pyruvate		''1.'' Carbon dioxide is released from pyruvate
	''2.'' Carbon dioxide is converted into acetaldehyde		''2.'' Carbon dioxide is converted into acetaldehyde

---

Revision as of 20:52, 21 March 2013

''Products using fermentation with fungi.''

Contents 1 Wine Fermentation 1.1 Introduction 1.2 History 1.3 Primary Fermentation 1.4 Secondary Fermentation 2 Beer Fermentation 2.1 History 2.2 Requirements for Fermentation 2.3 Chemical Process 2.4 Fun Facts About Beer 3 Bread Fermentation 3.1 Introduction 3.2 History 3.3 Processes Involved 3.4 Species Involved 4 Gasoline Fermentation 4.1 Introduction 4.2 History and Processes 4.3 Trivia 5 Bioremediation 5.1 Historical Methods of Bioremediation 5.2 Organisms and Breakdown Processes 6 Cheese Fermentation 6.1 History 6.2 Process 6.3 Yeast Organism Involved 7 References 8 Members Discussion

Wine Fermentation

Introduction

The process by which wine is produced is called wine fermentation. Grapes are combined with sugar and yeast to yield alcohol and carbon dioxide. The process occurs in two major steps:

1. Primary Fermentation
2. Secondary Fermentation

The general formula for wine fermentation includes:

• reactants - sugar and yeast
• products - alcohol and carbon dioxide

The most common yeast used in wine fermentation is Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Some examples of other yeasts involved in wine making from the Saccharomyces species are:

• S. bayanus
• S. beticus
• S. fermentati

The following list summarizes the process of wine fermentation in a few steps:

• yeast is added to grapes
• yeast converts natural sugars (glucose and fructose) into ethanol (alcohol) and carbon dioxide
• carbon dioxide is released into air while alcohol remains in solution
• fermentation is complete when alcohol content is tested to be 15% and yeast has been completely used up

History

Primary Fermentation

Secondary Fermentation

Secondary fermentation of wine is also referred to as anaerobic or malolactic fermentation. Malolactic fermentation is the process of converting the malic acid in wine to lactic acid. Malic acid is a harsher acid, whereas lactic acid is a much softer acid. During this process, L-malic acid is converted to L-lactic acid and CO2. One consequence of MLF is a reduction in wine acidity with an increase in pH of about 0.2 units. Malolactic fermentation can be carried out by a number of lactic acid bacteria but commercial strains of O. oeni such as ML-34, PSU-1, MCW, EQ-54, Viniflora, to name a few, have been used.

Beer Fermentation

Beer is a trademark item in many situations in every day life. It is consumed at parties, at home with friends, with meals, beer tasting events or general stress relief, beer has become an accepted part of many lives. In Canada, the legal drinking age in most provinces is 19 years. At this age and beyond, people consume beer in various amounts and often times, do not even know how their beverage is actually made! Beer comes in two main types: Ale and Lager. These are in essence the same in the sense that they contain a certain percentage of ethanol yet how the reaction to make the beer is quiet different visually. Ales are "top-fermenting", in other words, the yeast ferments and is release at the top of the vessel. Whereas, lagers are "bottom-fermenting" and the release is from the bottom of the vessel. ^[1]

Beer favourites are based on the overall taste of the beer, initial, on-going, and after taste. If you are a person whom enjoys tasting varieties of beers you will come across those which are bitter, sweet, have an awful initial taste and some with no after taste. These are all reliant on the type of grain used and how the fermentation occurs in the vessel.

History

In Ancient Times, beer was used in many different ways by different colonies of people. It was a crucial part of the culture for many groups. According to Professor Linda Raley of Texas Tech University, Babylonian clay tablets held the recipe for the beloved beverage as early as 4300 B.C. Beer was used in burial and medicinal rituals as well as certain rites and ceremonies. Unlike modern day society, beer was often reserved for royalty because it symbolized the riches they had. At this point in time, the variety was nothing compared to what it is today. Merely 20 varieties of beer existed in the Babylonian colony, which is present day Iraq. Each group of people in these times used grains that were native to their lands, thus giving rise to the different varieties. These varieties include:

• Millet (Africa)
• Maize (Africa)
• Cassava (Africa)
• Persimmon (North America)
• Sweet potato (Brazil)
• Rice (Japan)
• Wheat (China)
• Guass (Russia)
• Barley (Egyptians)
• And unrecorded, potentially dozens more!

(L. Raley) ^[2] At this point in time, beer was brewed in small barrels and bottles. At such a small scale, beer was not easy to come by like it is today. As time has passed, developments of various methods, in which to produce mass amounts of beer at one time, have been created. Large silos filled with beer that is fermenting can now be found at the many beer factories! Mass production has taken a lift, beer is made and sold at high rates thanks to the use of large fermenting vessels such as the one below. ^[3]

Requirements for Fermentation

Beer is not magically created! In order for the fermentation of beer, microorganisms, water and grain are required.

• Saccharomyces sp. is the most common organism used in the fermentation of beer. Ales (top-fermenting beer) require Saccharomyces cerevisiae in order for the correct processes to occur. Lagers (bottom-fermenting beer) require Saccharomyces uvarum which produces run-off from the bottom of the vessel. The yeast created during fermentation is generally a thick, white-yellow puff.

• Water that is purified and free of toxins is needed

• Refined grains are also required. These grains contain glucose molecules which are the starting point of the fermentation pathway.

All of these materials together in specific portions are based on the type of ale or lager being produced.

Chemical Process

Glucose found in the grains is the starting material for the process known as Glycolysis. Glycolysis is the anaerobic catabolism of glucose. This process is a series of electron transfers which lead to the production of two pyruvic acid molecules. These molecules can become ethanol and carbon dioxide. Glycolysis produces NADH; which is an electron transport molecule. The surplus of this molecule must be used up, this is why oxidation occurs. This oxidation finalizes the reaction moving the reaction from pyruvate to ethanol.

Summary of Process

1. Carbon dioxide is released from pyruvate 2. Carbon dioxide is converted into acetaldehyde 3. Acetaldehyde is reduced by NADH to ethyl alcohol thus regenerating the requirement of production of NAD+ which is produced in Glycolysis. ^[4]

Fun Facts About Beer

Brought to you by The Beer Store

• A person whom enjoys consuming beer can be called a CEREVISAPHILE!

• The recipe for beer is one of the oldest known to man!

• "Beer Beer Beer, Babala, Beer Beer Beer". This rhyme stems from the Babylonians whom are the creators of the world known BEER!

Bread Fermentation

Introduction

History

Processes Involved

The process of bread fermentation is relatively simple, with very few ingredients involved. Bread recipes generally call for yeast, sugar, milk, water, flour, butter and salt. The first step of making bread is to combine the yeast, sugar, water and milk in a warm area until fermentation begins to occur. Once fermentation begins to occur, the flour, butter and salt are then added to the mixture and mixed until the dough is smooth. The final mixture is then left in a warm place to double in size. Once the dough has doubled in size it is then kneaded and placed in a baking sheet where it is left for one more our to rise before baking. The loaf is then baked in the oven at various temperatures and times depending on what the recipe calls for. Typical temperatures are usually between 75 and 85 degrees Fahrenheit.

Throughout the process of making bread there are two different stages of fermentation that occur. The first stage of fermentation occurs while the bread is left to double in size for the first time. During this time the yeast produces carbon dioxide bubbles, which will determine the breads final texture once it is left to bake. The second stage of fermentation is called proofing or proving. During the proofing stage carbon dioxide is also formed which allows the dough to double in size one last time before baking.

The chemical equation for the process of bread fermentation is: C₆H₁₂O₆ → C₂H₅OH + 2 CO₂

Species Involved

Gasoline Fermentation

Introduction

E85 is a gasoline blend composed of high levels of ethanol mixed with petrol. Possible sources of plant material for conversion to ethanol include sugarcane, wheat straw, rice, stover (remaining leaves and stalks ofhttps://kumu.brocku.ca/common/skins/common/images/button_media.png maize crop post-harvest), cereal grains, and bagasse (the fibrous leftover sugarcane material after sugarcane juice has been extracted). ^[5] Trichoderma viride, Chrysosoporium lucknowense, and Penicilium verruculosum are some of the fungal species utilized by humans for their biodegradative properties on plant biomass material.

History and Processes

Trichoderma viride was originally isolated by Mandels and Elwyn T. Reese from rotting military uniforms in the Solomon Islands during World War II. Discovery of this species inspired further research investigating the fungal mechanisms and enzymes used to convert polymeric cellulosic material into ethanol or glucose. Subsequent experiments using high-energy electrons and UV irradiation on Trichoderma viride found that this species secretes a protein containing a mixture of enzymes. These enzymes include cellobiohydrolase (~70%) capable of cleaving cellobiose (beta, 1-4 diglucoside) in cellulose, endoglucanases (~30%) which split internal linkages by hydrolysis at random, and beta-glucosidases (~1%) which produce glucose via hydrolysis of cellobiose and cellodextrins.

This process can be summarized in this equation: ^[5]

Here is an animation explaining the simplified process of producing E85 gasoline fuel from various crops:

[1]

There has been concern that converting corn into fuel (such as its use in E85 gasoline) will drive up the prices of corn and other staple foods such as rice, wheat and maize. ^[5]

Trivia

T. reesi is a strain of Trichoderma viride that produces high yields of cellulase, and is named after Elwyn T. Reese, the scientist whose work helped to illuminate the process by which this fungus converts plant biomass into ethanol. ^[5]

Bioremediation

Yeasts have recently begun to be used to clean up oil spills and other polluted environments through bioremediation, which is the process whereby living organisms, such as bacteria or plants, are used to remove or neutralize contaminants in the environment, such as polluted soil or water ^[6]. In particular, oil spills typically occur due to:

• Routine shipping operations
• Oil refineries
• Industrial and municipal waste disposal
• Tankers accidents
• And more ^[7]

Bioremediation can be subdivided into 2 categories:

• Bioaugmentation
• Biostimulation

Bioaugmentation is the addition of microorganisms that degrade hydrocarbons to an environment in order to lower the amount of contaminants in that environment ^[8]. This method is not typically used mainly because there are already microorganisms present in the environment that can degrade the crude products the majority of the time. Also, adding in non-native microorganisms may result in competition between the introduced species and the native species, which may cause problems for the ecosystem ^[8].

Biostimulation is the addition of nutrients to the contaminated environment so that microorganisms that degrade hydrocarbons which are already present in the environment can break down the pollutants more efficiently ^[8]. This method is used more frequently in industry because it removes the factor of competition between organisms. Typically, the limiting factors in the degradation process are nitrogen and phosphorus, and carbon is present in excess due to the pollutant ^[8]. There are many factors that need to be examined before nutrients can be added into the environment in order to ensure the nutrients will be taken up effectively and remain in the system. These include:

• Density of water
• Tides
• Current

The speed of the bioremedial process is also affected by various physical and chemical factors ^[8]:

• Temperature
• Surface area of the pollutant
• Oxygen
• Nutrients
• pH
• composition of the pollutant

Temperature plays a major role. Warmer temperatures will allow for higher rates of degradation because the pollutant will not be as thick, meaning the organisms will have a greater surface area to access for their enzymes to attack. A lighter, thinner pollutant will also help the microorganisms to access oxygen for fermentation.

Historical Methods of Bioremediation

In the past, there have been various methods for cleaning up oil spills, ^[9]:

• Physical methods:
  • Booms
  • Washing
  • Soil movement and tilling
  • Mechanical removal
• Chemical methods:
  • Demulsifiers
  • Solidifiers

These methods can be time consuming and expensive depending on the required equipment. Some of the methods, such as mechanical removal, can only be used under certain conditions, such as when there is only a small amount of oil in the water. Others, such as the chemical methods, are very effective but are not healthy for the environment ^[9]. The natural methods used, such as soil movement and tilling, are preferred for the environment, but they take the most amount of time ^[9].

^[8]. This helps to further reduce the risk of additional spills that may occur during transportation.

There are a few disadvantages to using bioremediation ^[10]:

• Competition between native and introduced organisms
• Difficult to perform field studies for data

Organisms and Breakdown Processes

There are many different types of yeast that are used in bioremediation. The following table gives some examples of these species:

The most common yeast used in bioremediation is Yarrowia lipolytica ^[11]. Y. lipolytica is part of the Ascomycota and can be isolated from dairy products and other chilled foods including cheese, yogurt, and sausages. This yeast is also naturally found in oil fields, indicating that it uses oil as a carbon source naturally. This yeast is non-pathogenic and is an obligate aerobe, meaning it cannot live without oxygen. ^[12] In order for Y. lipolytica to be able to survive the anaerobic (oxygen-lacking) conditions, it uses its hyphae to obtain oxygen from the surface. These hyphae, which are long filamentous structures that are the main mode of vegetative growth of a fungus, also secrete hydrolytic enzymes that are able to degrade oil and other crude heavy metals ^[13][14].

^[15]

Another type of yeast, Pichia guilliermondii, is used to help remove harmful metals and metalloids from contaminated environments ^[16]. This yeast traps the metals in small vesicles and takes them up into the cell to get rid of them through various reduction-oxidation reactions (reactions in the cell that use the transferring of electrons to help drive other reactive processes).

^[17]

Yeasts secrete hydrolytic enzymes from their hyphae into the extracellular space (outside of the cell). These enzymes cleave the hydrocarbon chains in oil and other pollutants into carbon dioxide and water. Yeasts perform this reaction without the production of insoluble polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) that are known as ‘tailings’ and are highly toxic to the atmosphere ^[18]. This is possible because the yeasts use up the hydrocarbons in their own metabolic processes (i.e. during fermentation). During this process, toxins and other pathogens are also removed from the contaminated environment, leaving clean water or soil.

^[19]

In order for these processes to occur efficiently, oxygen (either from the atmosphere or from water) and a balance between carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus are required^[20]. The following video further explains the breakdown of hydrocarbons in contaminants by yeasts and demonstrates just how effective this process is:

Cheese Fermentation

Yeast, depending on its properties, can have a negative or positive effect in the producing a certain type of cheese. It can reduce acidity, lower pH, develop a distinct aroma or it can give unpleasant taste and texture. Processing milk to ferment allow longer storage and easily transport without spoilage. Cheese making was made from milk produce animals such as goat, buffalo, cattle, reindeer.

History

A story of a traveller from a nomadic tribe in Asia was heading towards Europe when the traveller discovered the milk stored in the stomach pouch of a sheep was turned into curds. Exposure of the stomach pouch to the sun, activated the enzyme renin which cause the milk to curdle but scholar have agreed that anyone with milk producing animals may have stumble on the cheese incident. Archeologist have discovered fragments of sieved-like pottery, along with cattle bones, in north central Poland that was theorized and proven to be used to separate the curds from the whey in milk fermenting. The pottery was dated to between 7,200 to 6,8000 B.C.E.^[21] The Romans is known to have master the cheese ripening after conquering Gaul and bringing the artisan of cheese making. The word cheese have been made reference by Homer(c.1184 B.C.E.) which first mention of feta, Aristotle(384-322 B.C.E.) milk used by horse and mule, Varro (c.127 B.C.E.) the production of cheese went from home to commercial production,and Columella (c.50 B.C.E.) gave detail accounts of processing cheese.^[22] After the fall of the Roman Empire, some cheese recipes were stored in some monasteries or forgotten, and few innovative cheese were created in the Middle Ages and still existed today. The European monks developed new ripening and aging techniques of cheese and examples of these cheeses are: Gorgonzola 879 C.E., Roquefort 1070 C.E., English Cheddar 1500 C.E., Parmesan 1579 C.E., Gouda 1697 C.E., and Camembert 1791 C.E.^[23] Cheese travelled to the New World by pilgrims in 1620. The first cheese factory was built in the United States by Jesse Williams in Oneida County, New York in 1851.^[24] The first Canadian cheese factory was opened in Norwich, Ontario, in 1864, known as 'The Pioneer'.^[25] In 1880, the United States had 3,923 dairy factories which were reported to have made 216 million pounds of cheese that same year.^[26] In 1968 aired the television ad for cheese (le Boursin) in France.

Process

Yeast Organism Involved

References

[2]

1. ↑ http://www.dummies.com/how-to/content/the-differences-between-ales-and-lagers.html
2. ↑ http://www.beerhistory.com/library/holdings/raley_timetable.shtml
3. ↑ http://www.michaeljohngrist.com/2009/03/asahi-beer-factory-ibaraki/
4. ↑ http://www.google.ca/url?sa=i&source=images&cd=&cad=rja&docid=eiToWVLdubx4HM&tbnid=7pgUGFxoTLXrXM:&ved=0CAgQjRwwAA&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.elmhurst.edu%2F~chm%2Fvchembook%2F703reduction.html&ei=wJJLUZzMKq6ayQHcpoH4Dw&psig=AFQjCNGnMB1RV4kDT-lKykJ27-TTi880GA&ust=1363993664741655
5. ↑ ^{5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3} http://web.ebscohost.com.proxy.library.brocku.ca/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?sid=3486329f-a2d5-4a8f-ba0b-6dec35eaef87%40sessionmgr10&vid=2&hid=23.
6. ↑ Moore,D., Robson, G.D. and Trinci, A.P.J. 21st century guidebook to fungi with CD. Cambridge University Press. 2011.
7. ↑ see page 644 from http://books.google.ca/books?id=jLFmiervaqMC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_atb#v=onepage&q&f=false
8. ↑ ^{8.0 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5} http://home.eng.iastate.edu/~tge/ce421-521/matt-r.pdf
9. ↑ ^{9.0 9.1 9.2} http://www.nrt.org/production/NRT/NRTWeb.nsf/AllAttachmentsByTitle/A-62EPA_marine_bioremediation/$File/EPA_marine_bioremediation.pdf?OpenElement.
10. ↑ Cite error 8; No text given.
11. ↑ http://books.google.ca/books?id=jLFmiervaqMC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_atb#v=onepage&q&f=false
12. ↑ http://books.google.ca/books?id=jLFmiervaqMC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_atb#v=onepage&q&f=false
13. ↑ Jain, M.R., Zinjarde, S.S., Deobagkar, D.D. and Deobagkar, D.N. 2004. 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene transformation by a tropical marine yeast Yarrowia lipolytica. Marine Pollution Bulletin 49(9): 783-788.
14. ↑ Strouhal, M., Kizek, R., Vacek, J., Trnkova, L. and Nemec, M. 2003. Electrochemical study of heavy metals and meallothionein in yeast Yarrowia lipolytica. Bioelectrochemistry 60(1): 29-36.
15. ↑ http://www.gefor.4t.com/concurso/hongos/yarrowialipolytica.jpg
16. ↑ Ksheminska, H., Jaglarz, A., Fedorovych, D., Babyak, L., Yanovych, D., Kaszycki, P. and Koloczek, H. 2003. Bioremediation of chromium by the yest Pichia guilliermondii: toxicity and accumulation of Cr(III) and Cr(VI) and the influence of riboflavin on Cr tolerance. Microbial Res 158: 59-67.
17. ↑ http://www.ncyc.co.uk/print-photo-ncyc-CBS2031.html
18. ↑ http://www.bioremediate.com/petrochemical.html
19. ↑ http://greenbizness.com/blog/wiki/epa-bioremediation-guide/
20. ↑ http://www.bioremediate.com/petrochemical.html
21. ↑ see http://news.discovery.com/history/prehistoric-farmers-cheese-121212.htm Sohn, Emily 12 Dec 2012,'Prehistoric Farmer Made Cheese'.
22. ↑ see http://www.thenibble.com/REVIEWS/main/cheese/cheese2/history.asp A Nibble 2013, 'A History of Cheese'.
23. ↑ see http://www.thenibble.com/REVIEWS/main/cheese/cheese2/history.asp A Nibble 2013, 'A History of Cheese'.
24. ↑ see http://www.idfa.org/news--views/media-kits/cheese/history-of-cheese/ International Dairy Foods Association, 'Cheese: History of Cheese'.
25. ↑ see http://www.dairygoodness.ca/cheese/the-history-of-cheese/cheese-in-canada Dairy Goodness, 'History of Cheese: Cheese in Canada'.
26. ↑ see http://www.idfa.org/news--views/media-kits/cheese/history-of-cheese/ International Dairy Foods Association, 'Cheese: History of Cheese'.

Members Discussion

Members

There are many more things than wine that uses fermentation. You could each find something first and if you run out, then pair up on same. Chris

Are we gonna divide the content only next Tuesday when we meet at 2pm in front of the Library Classroom A? If It is Ok, I would like to take the wine fermentation part. Later, we can decide who else would like to take this part too.

Priscila

Sounds good to me, to be honest I will take up whatever. I am not picky with what I have to do.

David

Queenie: Here is the link for the gasoline fermentation thing http://www.afdc.energy.gov/vehicles/flexible_fuel_emissions.html

Meagan

Just thought we would post what fermentations we decided to do when we met today. Arlene is going to do beer fermentation and I am going to do bread fermentation.

Nicole

I will be doing wine fermentation with Priscila -Haley

Thanks Meagan! So I'm going to do E85 gasoline then. Other fermentation products of fungi we could do are commercial organic acids [3] and food dyes [4] and the edible tempe [5] -Queenie

I will be doing bioremediation. Are we going to meet tomorrow at 2 in the library again or just kind of post our stuff? - Meagan

I think just posting our stuff is fine, we don't have to meet. -Queenie

Okay, sounds good! I'm hoping to get my stuff up at some point tonight, and I am totally fine with people editing mine or changing the format to make things flow and look better. - Meagan

Does everybody have a topic then? David just wondering if you can confirm what part you are doing. Lets shoot to all have our parts posted by Thursday morning so that there will be enough time to edit/add to each other's information by Friday when it is due. -Haley

I'm pretty sure David dropped it (look at the 'Members' page). Also, I posted some stuff in my section, still have a bit more info and pictures to add though. - Meagan

Thanks Meagan I didn't realize that was him that dropped, I'm a bit confused because there is still only 6 of us total. Thanks for posting you're stuff though, looks good so far! -Haley

No problem! Okay, so I have all of my info up there, but I completely forget how to put up images and references and the stuff that guy gave us isn't really helpful for me. Could you guys help me out with this? Thanks. - Meagan

Hi Meagan, for uploading images there's the toolbox on the left that has an 'upload file' link. Click that then go to 'choose file' then 'choose picture'. The example in my notes is Image:Bus bus.jpg. For references, can we just put a link to page/article, or do we have to use APA format?

Hey guys, this page is pretty helpful for the references [6] -Queenie

Okay... So I put in all my pictures and references, and something along the way got totally screwed up and my info is all over the place on the page. HELP. - Meagan

Hey Meagan, for the first time you include each reference, try using <ref name="author's name"> instead of <ref> . -Queenie

I tried using the same referencing things I did for the bioremediation part to try and fix it, since the exact same thing worked on my part but it's not much use. I've contacted the wiki demonstrator so hopefully he'll reply soon! -Queenie

Guys, do you know how to embed a youtube video? I've tried using the youtube icon at the top, but somehow it doesn't show up on the main page? Also for some reason the Trivia section of Gasoline fermentation and the Bioremediation header isn't showing up either?? Queenie

For the youtube video, once you click the youtube icon you have to copy and paste the part of the url in after ?v= If that doesn't work I'm not too sure how else to do it. Nicole