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From PSYC4P07 Winter 2013: Group 08

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The Impact of an Evolving Population on Creativity in Higher Education

What is the problem?

Higher education has been a source of controversy for decades because the shifting values and needs of society have not been met by the post-secondary education system. The world we live in today is very fast-paced and filled with information available at our fingertips and this sensory overload leaves students disengaged when exposed to traditional higher education practices.^[1] Students are taught ‘hard skills’ that focus on practicality and technical skills because they are deemed more useful in society despite evidence that employers often value soft skills like communication and teamwork when assessing job candidates.^[2] Overall, the changing student population demands a change in higher education in order to inspire creativity and innovation in students.

When it all began: the Industrial Revolution

Building of universities during the Industrial Revolution increased exponentially to accommodate the rapid increase in student populations

The higher education system was originally intended only for elite individuals where the development of intellect remained of the utmost importance until the mid-20th century.^[3] The introduction to the Industrial Revolution of the 19th century incorporated engineers, scientists, and technologists into the realm of higher education and specialized training in order to compete with other nations.^[3] With this shift, there was no longer a distinct focus on nurturing intellect or critical thinking because the purpose of university changed to accommodate industrial capitalism.^[3]

With the industrial revolution came mass education reforms and the advancement of technical and managerial positions, which sidelined agricultural jobs.^[4] These new professions required a mastery of abstract principles so the role of education became a motivator for innovation to support the social change.^[4] A magazine article by Folger illustrates how the change in society and increasing intelligence influenced changes in educational reform.^[4] At the time, this was a necessary and widespread movement but its relevance in modern society is questionable.

Why is it a problem NOW?

The current state of learning is not recognizing the rapid evolution that separates the modern student population and society from an era that focused on skills accommodating for the industrial revolution. There is less concentration on fostering creativity because higher learning has become an industry like any other business.^[3] An interactive web article by The Globe and Mail highlights some of the key issues such as overcrowding, disengaged students, and lack of innovative thinking in Canadian higher education.

As Statistics Canada points out, there is a steady increase in student enrolment and graduation rates in Canada.^[5] Getting a job is the main focus of students in higher education but universities give little to no guidance about job prospects or how to apply learned skills after graduating.^[6] A study by Burke analyzed student perceptions of personal skills acquired during their undergraduate degree program and found that students were able to identify many different skills but had difficulty communicating those skills to prospective employers.^[2] Students are being provided with the relevant information, but they lack the skills transference and experience aspect in which employers are looking for.^[2]

Accessibility can be seen as both an issue associated with higher education and a motivator for change. The industrial revolution opened up the realm of higher education, but at what cost? Consider the following:

Greater Accessibility to Higher Education

PROS	CONS
- Equal opportunity to further education and pursue career goals[3]	- Less intimacy and personalization of student-educator learning experience[7]
- Less focus on income and social class[3]	- Overcrowding; teachers are finding it difficult to incorporate creativity in larger classes[7]

Shifting to a new generation of students

The industrial revolution had a tremendous impact on the development of the higher education system, but it is not sustainable in light of the current changes to society. Reforming higher education is a daunting but necessary task that must be undertaken in order to reestablish its relevance and usefulness for today’s student population.^[3] The following video illustrates the issues associated with the unsustainability of the traditional education system and focuses on the benefits of technology:

Technology increases student engagement because it applies modern concepts to give relevancy to learning material.^[8] In a study evaluating E-Learning Systems, it was found that students were more satisfied in an online course if they were engaged using tools like social networking.^[8] This is consistent with the idea that opening up accessibility allows for more flexibility and opportunities for students to be creative while learning.^[1]

The rigidity of the current higher educational model creates a problem for both students and educators alike because it is not fostering creativity and stifles motivation to change.^[7]

Outside of School

In regards to education and creativity, whether education fosters creativity or if education kills creativity, society expects teachers to promote creativity in the school curriculum. Leaving education and teachers responsible for fostering creativity in students is a challenging job. There are many different types of activities with multiple components that promote creativity. ^[9] For example dance which includes a variety of different dance styles as well as a physical component, aesthetic appeal, self-expression and performance. ^[9] It is difficult to choose what activities will be taught in schools and what components will be stressed. It has been debated if schools do a good job at providing activities that foster creativity; nevertheless, students are not doomed if education does not foster creativity. There are many activities that promote creativity and can be fostered outside of school through extracurricular activities, parental involvement and community programs.

Extracurricular activities and Parental Involvement

• Dance lessons are an extracurricular activity that fosters creativity yet research found modern dancers are specifically more creative than other dancers in jazz and ballet. ^[10] Modern dancers are highly creative because they are required to improvise and perform more freely rather than being bound to strict choreography. ^[10] Other extracurricular activitiesinclude drama, fabric and crafting workshops, painting classes, science club, singing lessons or learning a new instrument.

• If extracurricular activities are too expensive or inaccessible, there are other activities parents can encourage in order to promote creativity at home. Handcraft activities, for example constructing a robot or ship from cardboard boxes, are inexpensive and easy to organize. For this activity, children can use materials from around the house and parents should encourage their child to use their imagination and create whatever they desire. Using handcraft materials, such as boxes, enhances children’s originality, flexibility and elaboration. ^[11] In addition, handcraft activities welcomes new ideas, enhances imagination, develops self-building abilities and improves problem-solving skills. ^[11] Overall, creativity is enriched when children use handcraft making activities opposed to those who do not.^[11]

• Even though parents may encourage activities that foster creativity, it is common in today’s society for the television to be on. However, child informative programs such as Mister Rogers’ Neighbourhood emphasize creativity and surprisingly predicts participation in creative activities. ^[12] Specifically, individuals who watched a lot of child informative programs participate in more activities that foster creativity. ^[12] It is important to note that other programs that emphasize academics or general entertainment for example comedies or game shows, do not stimulate imagination or divergent thought as informative programs do.^[12] For that reason, watching television informative programs are better than other programs in regards to promoting creativity.

• Parents should also encourage children to play outdoors as a way to foster creativity outside of school. Being outdoors in an environment full of sensory experience allows for inventive play that enhances creativity ^[13]. Furthermore, travelling also improves creativity. ^[14] Creativity is enhanced when individuals compare similarities and/or differences as well as come up with novel and useful ideas in a new environment.^[14]

There are so many activities that foster creativity teachers may struggle to incorporate this into the curriculum. However, parents can also take initiative to help foster creativity since many of these activities can be done outside of school and at home. Mel, a homeschooling mother, says in her blog, “I don’t just want my children to be limited to arts and crafts, though they do that too, but I want them to experience other forms of creativity. The sky is the limit. And so where there is an opportunity for creative expression, we do it” ^[15].

Besides enrolling children into extracurricular activities after school or organizing other creative activities at home, parents can also promote creativity by encouraging intuition[1] and self-expression. ^[16] Most importantly parents must allow freedom of development by not setting restrictions or having “age-specific” expectations of child for optimal creativity which is not established in schools.^[16] There is also a positive relationship between parents and highly creative children with parents who are open to feelings, stress emotional security and put less emphasis on companionship ^[17]. Important values such as these are emphasized throughout an individual’s life outside of school by parents.

For more ideas on how to promote creativity click here

The Community

If some families cannot support or organize creative play outside of school, a creative role model in their child’s lives can help the parent encourage creativity as well as inspire and guide them. Community programs can also help foster creativity. For example, MacLaren, a community program in Barrie, Ontario, has free afterschool workshops for youth that focuses on the arts and inspires creativity. ^[18] MacLaren will also bring art supplies to in-house art classes on the weekends and offers family workshops on visual art projects. ^[18]There are many community programs like MacLaren that can assist families and foster creativity. This is another example of how it is possible to provide children with activities that foster creativity outside of school.

MacLaren Community Art Program

Whether education promotes creativity or not there are other ways to foster creativity outside of school.

Culture and Creativity in Education

Defining Creativity

It is important to understand the difference in creativity amongst cultures before looking at how creativity in education differs amongst cultures. Most would think that the western world values creativity in education less than other parts of the world, but multiple studies show that this is not necessarily the case. One thing that does differ though, is what people in different cultures define creativity as.

In Western cultures, people tend to be more focused on the final outcome or product whereas in eastern cultures, people tend to focus more on the process that was used to get to that final outcome or product.^[19] Creative work is considered to belong to the community in some Indian cultures. People that come from collectivist societies, typically in the east, usually care more about the interest of society as a whole rather than individual efforts being put forth.^[20] Western cultures differ from the previous two in that uniqueness is a crucial part of creativity.^[21]

A small study on the cross-cultural differences in creativity can be seen here

Cultural Similarities

Studies show that in both eastern and western cultures, teachers do not have one set feeling about creative students in the classroom. In a study conducted by Westby and Dawson in 1995, reports showed teachers had a liking to creative students. They were then asked to define creative students using adjectives, and they used adjectives such as conforming and well behaved. When the same group of teachers were then given adjectives that have been commonly associated with creative people, their reports showed that they disliked the students who the adjectives were attached to.^[22]

Teachers in Western cultures put more value in bright students than they do in creative students. They also associate creativity with nonconformity, impulsivity, and disruptive behaviour. ^[23]

Others studies show that teachers in both America and India showed a likeliness to creativity, but also associated words such as emotional and impulsive (which have also been linked with mental illness) with creativity. ^{[24] [25]}

Tan conducted a study in 2003 that showed teachers in Singapore took more of a liking to students who they deemed pleasant when compared to students described as risk-taking and over creative.^[26]

Comparing studies between Guncer and Oral in 1993,^[27] and Chan and Chan in 1999^[28], it can be seen that socially undesirable traits were associated with student creativity in both Chinese and Turkish teachers.

It is interesting to know that even within some cultures there are educational differences. Children that live in the rural areas of China complain of not being able to be as creative or as educated as Chinese children living in the city. A teacher at the school spoke of wanting to allow the children to be able to be creative and join in sports club and such, but the teachers at the school are just not equipped to take on that challenge. This topic is discussed in further detail in the video below:

Moving Forward

Because collectivist cultures generally value the benefit of society over individuality, most people would think teachers would encourage, or at least favour creativity in students because ideas that differ from the norm may work out to benefit their society in some way, shape, or form.

A paper entitled “The Limits to Creativity in Education: Dilemmas for the Educator” from 2003 suggested that there is a cultural limit on creativity. Anna Craft argues that terms like ‘extraordinary’ and ‘ordinary’ are not terms that can be applied universally because different cultures define these terms differently. She suggests that in Western cultures, we are more able to freely express ourselves and our individuality whereas in other cultures people may not be able to manifest their creativity or choose to suppress it due to social or political sanctions. Craft further goes on to say that the terms ordinary and extraordinary “reflect the globalization of significant aspects of western culture” and a way to increase the relevance of creativity is to increase the influence of Western culture globally.^[29]

The first step in this process would be to fully allow creative individuals to flourish within the Western culture and then that may lead to the rest of the world adapting our values. This has been seen in England where creativity has been a part of the school curriculum for children ages 3-5.^[29] This is good because it will spark the creativity of children while they are still young and their brains are still developing.

A company called Metamorphic Toys has come up with toys that can be used by teachers in the classroom to help encourage creativity in their classrooms. The video below was taken at the National Education Association Expo in 2012 and shows feedback from teachers who got a chance to view the toys:

Products like this are definitely a step in the right direction for children in the Western, and entire world to be able to express as well as take pride in their creative minds.

Funding Arts Programs

Rising Expectations

In an article titled, The Ends of Education, the author Ellan Noonan describes her experience as an attendee of an “international conference of student counsellors, advisers, and administrators from”^[30] both college and university institutions as well as many representatives from the OECD. The OECD representatives had produced and compared figures of selected countries on a number of factors, that is “the percentage of people going into higher education, the amount spent on each student, the percentage of the national budget spent on higher education rates, etc” ^[30]. The conclusion of the conference revealed “that more graduates are required if countries are going to be economically competitive and higher education must become more competitive” ^[30]. Additionally, Noonan comments although there must be alternate methods of education must be created the ending result will remain the same; all universities are to be considered “factories for training employment and every graduate should be of the quality of a Nobel Prize winner” ^[30]. The idea of being trained specifically for receiving a job at the conclusion of one’s post secondary education has been implemented in many areas of the United States – however targeted specifically to high school students (Grant, 74). These institutions are called Governor’s Schools and operate as a sort of summer program. The program itself is highly intensive as well as extremely competitive ^[31]. The school only accepts professional artists, rather than the amateur – in an effort to push teens into a career in their particular art field.

The Government’s Limitations

Presently, the government remains the main source of funding education, which understandably places the government in a position of power. The government, as stated by Noonan is able to set certain things into motion. Its power, however is finite - while it can decide that the population needs “more engineers and scientists, and the money will be distributed accordingly” ^[30], the government cannot direct the flow of the students into predetermined fields of study. Even still, the universities are dependent on the government and gone are the days that the funders were considered passive figures – instead such of the university relies on the government ^[30] for such funding. The current process regarding grants that facilitate the continuation of education “education stipulates that the amount of grant awarded to the institution is calculated on the basis of the number of students who enrolled on any course” based on initial course attendance ^[30].

Influence of Technology

We cannot “simply ignore the [higher education]’s sector’s increasing involvement in practice-led research when we discuss the future directions, needs, and potential of the creative industries” ^[32]. Harper makes note of the technological revolution that we are currently experiencing has strongly impacted the creative industries – for example “music, film, and the cinema industry, television, all areas of design, leisure software […], publishing, and even the architectural and fashion sectors” have been transformed by digital technology ^[32].

How Research Helps Graduates

It is no secret that “money is trumping creativity in academic science” ^[33]. Carlson “presents [the] worsening situation [that] places a dead hand on the spirit and creative output of academic scientists” ^[33]. The failure rate for submitted proposals by academic research assistants has risen with the times to such levels that the members of faculty are “required to spend virtually all their time writing proposals, while leaving the creative thinking to graduate and post-doctorate associates” ^[33]. According to Carlson a possible solution for this issue would be providing academic scientists with a stable environment away from financial pressures and independent of “university administration and funding agencies” (Carlson, 361). However, as it stands as universities become more like a business the individual begins to experience such a degree of tiredness that they “neglect their teaching (and most everything else) in their frantic search for funding” ^[33]. Perhaps paradoxically, stated by Heaton in an early paper, creativity also increases the capacity the group in question in receiving funding, people, reputation, and eventually graduate students ^[34].

Notes and References

1. ↑ ^{1.0 1.1} Renes, S.L, & Strange, A.T. (2011). Using technology to enhance higher education. Innovative Higher Education 36(3): 203–13.
2. ↑ ^{2.0 2.1 2.2} Burke, V. J., & Doherty, M. I. (2005). Analysing student perceptions of transferable skills via undergraduate degree programmes. Active Learning in Higher Education, 6(2), 132.
3. ↑ ^{3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6} 2. Butler, G. (2007). Higher education: Its evolution and present trend. Journal Of Australian Political Economy, (60), 28-53.
4. ↑ ^{4.0 4.1 4.2} Folger, T. (2012). Can We Keep Getting Smarter?. Scientific American, 44-47.
5. ↑ Statistics Canada. (2008). University enrolment, by sex, registration status, and program type, Canada and provinces, 1997/1998, 2002/2003 and 2007/2008. Retrieved from Statistics Canada: http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/81-582-x/2009002/tbl/d.1.5.2-eng.htm
6. ↑ Wente, M. (2012, October 20). Access or quality: Our universities can’t have both. Retrieved from: http://www.theglobeandmail.com/commentary/access-or-quality-our-universities-cant-have-both/article4625237/
7. ↑ ^{7.0 7.1 7.2} Cotton, D., Bailey, I., Warren, M., & Bisell, S. (2009). Revolutions and second-best solutions: Education for sustainable development in higher education. Studies in Higher Education, 34(7), 719-733.
8. ↑ ^{8.0 8.1} Kim, K., Trimi, S., Park, H. and Rhee, S. (2012), The impact of CMS quality on the outcomes of E-learning systems in higher education: An empirical study. Decision Sciences Journal of Innovative Education, 10: 575–587.
9. ↑ ^{9.0 9.1} Fleming, M. (2008). Creative partnerships: exciting minds. Arts Council: London, England.
10. ↑ ^{10.0 10.1} Choi, C. (2013). Modern dancers more creative than others. Retrieved from http://www.livescience.com/16025-modern-dancers-creative.html
11. ↑ ^{11.0 11.1 11.2} Rezaei, A. & Zakariaie, M. (2011). Exploring the impact of handcraft activities on the creativity of female students at the elementary schools. International Education Studies. 4, 127-133. Retrieved from http://content.ebscohost.com.proxy.library.brocku.ca/pdf25_26/pdf/2011/B08J/01Feb11/59208864.pdf?T=P&P=AN&K=59208864&S=R&D=ehh&EbscoContent=dGJyMNXb4kSep7E4xNvgOLCmr0uep7RSsKi4Ta%2BWxWXS&ContentCustomer=dGJyMPGrs062qK9JuePfgeyx44Dt6fIA
12. ↑ ^{12.0 12.1 12.2} Anderson, D. et al. (2001). Early childhood television viewing and adolescent behaviour: The recontact. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development. 66, 67-78. doi: 10.2307/3181552
13. ↑ MacAdam, C. (2013). Creativity thrives in the outdoor classroom. Retrieved from http://www.teachingtimes.com/articles/creativity-outdoor-classroom.htm
14. ↑ ^{14.0 14.1} Bures, F. (2013). How travel enhances creativity. Retrieved from http://www.executivetravelmagazine.com/articles/how-travel-enhances-creativity
15. ↑ Mel (2012, June 28). Homeschooling and extra-curricular activities: creativity. Retrieved from http://mother-mel.blogspot.ca/2012/06/homeschooling-and-extra-curricular_5041.html
16. ↑ ^{16.0 16.1} Shainess, N. (1989). The roots of creativity. American Journal of Psychoanalysis, 49, 127-138. Retrieved from http://pao.chadwyck.com.proxy.library.brocku.ca/articles/displayItemPage.doFormatType=fulltextimages&QueryType=articles&ResultsID=13C3CA77B98157932A&ItemNumber=1&PageNumber=1
17. ↑ Dreyer, A. & Wells, M. (1966). Parental values, parental control, and creativity in young children. Journal of Marriage and Family, 28, 83-88. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/350047
18. ↑ ^{18.0 18.1} Farrell, C. (2012, April 27). Fostering creativity in young people: MacLaren matters. The Barrie Examiner. Retrieved from http://www.thebarrieexaminer.com/2012/04/27/fostering-creativity-in-young-people-maclaren-matters-column
19. ↑ Sawyer, R. K. (2006). Explaining creativity: The science of human innovation. NY: Oxford University Press
20. ↑ Goncalo, J. A., & Staw, B. M. (2006). Individualism–collectivism and group creativity. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 100(1), 96-109.
21. ↑ Baer, J., & Kaufman, J. C. (2006). Creativity Research in English-Speaking Countries.
22. ↑ Westby, E. L., & Dawson, V . L. (1995). Creativity: Asset or burden in the classroom? Creativity Research Journal, 8, 1-10.
23. ↑ Dawson, V. (1997). In Search of the Wild Bohemian: Challenges in the Identification of the Creatively Gifted. Roeper Review, 19(3), 148-52.
24. ↑ Raina, T. N. and M. K. Raina 1971 "Perception of teacher educators in India about ideal pupil." Journal of Educational Re- search 64:303-306.
25. ↑ Runco, M. A., & Johnson, D. J. (2002). Parent’s and teacher’s implicit theories of children's creativity: A cross-cultural perspective. Creativity Research Journal, 14(3/4), 427-438.
26. ↑ Tan, J. (2003) Reflections on Singapore’s education policies in an age of globalization, in: K. H. Mok & A. Welch (Eds) Globalization and educational restructuring in the Asia Pacific region (Houndmills, Palgrave Macmillan).
27. ↑ GUNCER, B., & ORAL, G. (1993). Relationship between creativity and nonconformity to school discipline as perceived by teachers of Turkish elementary school children, by controlling for their grade and sex. Journal of Instructional Psychology, 20(2), 208-214.
28. ↑ Chan, D. W., Chan, L. (1999. Implicit theories of creativity: teachers’ perception of students characteristics in Hong-Kong. Creativity Research Journal, 12, 185-195.
29. ↑ ^{29.0 29.1} Craft, A. (2003). The limits to creativity in education: Dilemmas for the educator. British Journal of Educational Studies, 51(2), 113-127.
30. ↑ ^{30.0 30.1 30.2 30.3 30.4 30.5 30.6} Noonan, E. (2008). The Ends of Education. Psychodynamic Practice. 14 (4). 383 – 394.
31. ↑ Grant, D. (2007). Government-Funded Art Training for High-School Students, Drawing Education Supplement.
32. ↑ ^{32.0 32.1} Harper, G. (2011). Practice-Led Research and the Future of the Creative Industries. Creative Industries Journal. 4 (1). 5 – 17.
33. ↑ ^{33.0 33.1 33.2 33.3} Carlson, T. N. (2008). Current Funding in Practices in Academic Science Stifle Creativity. Dupont Summit 2008. 631 – 642.
34. ↑ Heaton, P. W. J. (2005). The Vital Role of Creativity in Academic Departments. BJU International. 96. 254 - 256