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Contents 1 Abstract 2 Chapter 1: Physical Media 2.1 Chapter Summary 2.2 Historical Periods 2.2.1 The Sovereign Society 2.2.2 The Disciplinary Society 2.2.3 The Control Society 2.3 History of the Internet 2.4 Networks 2.4.1 Centralized Networks 2.4.2 Decentralized Networks 2.4.3 Distributed Networks 2.4.4 Protocol Layers 2.4.5 Transmission Control Protocol 2.4.6 Internet Protocol 2.4.7 Domain Name System 2.4.8 Discussion Questions 2.5 Further Readings 2.6 Notes and References 3 Chapter 2: Form 3.1 Chapter Summary 3.1.1 Social Implications of the Internet 3.1.1.1 Social Implications: a Marxist Perspective 3.1.1.2 Social Implications: The Internet as Emancipatory Media 3.1.1.2.1 Enzensberger's chart 3.1.2 Cybernetics and Associative Indexing 3.1.3 Form and Continuity 3.1.4 Immaterial Software 3.1.5 Suggested Further Readings 3.2 Notes and References 4 Chapter 3 5 =Chapter 4 Institutionalization 5.1 Chapter 5 5.2 Chapter 6 5.3 Chapter 7 5.4 Chapter 8

Abstract

Chapter 1: Physical Media

Chapter Summary

The focus of this chapter is on distributed networks in the control society. Galloway takes his theories from Foucault's Sovereign vs. Disciplinary Power and Deleuze's Postscript on the Societies of Control and builds on them. Galloway first explains the concept of centralization and decentralization in sovereign and disciplinary societies respectively. Whereas centralization and decentralization facilitate control through hubs and nodes, each node in the distributed network is an autonomous agent. Galloway explores Internet protocols (TCP, IP, DNS) and demonstrates how they are used to regulate the content and operations of the Internet.

Historical Periods

The Sovereign Society

• The Sovereign Society is from the classical era, the medieval era where society is, “characterized by centralized power and sovereign fiat, control existed as an extension of the word and deed of the master, assisted by violence and other coercive factors.” ^[1]

The Disciplinary Society

• A result of the emergence of industrialization and the secular legal system
• Decentralized method to manage the population growth by "replacing violence with more bureaucratic forms of command and control."^[2]
• Regulated society through disciplinary institutions such as prisons, schools, hospitals, etc.
• Less individualistic and hierarchal

The Control Society

History of the Internet

Networks

Centralized Networks

• is the simplest network to understand.
• There is a central, singular point (a hub) that nodes or connections that travel off of to connect to points at the end. Each Node is individual and is connected to the central hub, the area where information starts from and then disperses down. Each node is singular and is only connected to the host. The host is what gives off the rules and ideas to each node. Everything comes back to the central point, which is the central hub. The messages from the hub to the nodes go back and forth. Messages cannot be transferred from node to node. The hub is above the nodes. The hub is the power that gets pushed down to each node. The information that is given is from one source which is then dispersed. A centralized network is more direct root to give a message than any other network. That being said, “communication networks characterized by a high degree of centralization made fewer errors and sent fewer messages.” ^[3]

Example of Centralized Networks

• Panopticon: Jeremy Bentham in 1787 designed the Panopticon. He created a differently designed prison that had never been seen before this time. A panopticon means “all-seeing place that functioned as a round-the-clock surveillance machine. The design ensured that no prisoner could ever see the 'inspector' who conducted surveillance from the privileged location of a tower in the centre of the circular prison. The prisoner could never know when he was under surveillance and therefore creating the illusion of constant surveillance” ^[4] Where the guard stands is the hub of the information, and the nodes are the prisoners.
• Foucault theorized Bentham's idea of the Panopticon. Foucault talked about how, “a guard is situated at the center of many radial cells. Each cell contains a prisoner. This special relationship between guard and prisoner “links the centre and periphery. Power is exercised without division, according to a continuous hierarchical figure occupying the central hub.” ^[5] The prison guard is in the middle (the central hub) of the room which surrounds where the prisoners are incarcerated. Which acts as the hierarchal point that looks down on the nodes in the placement. The system runs from top to bottom network, as the top are the prison guards looking down at the bottom which are the prisoners. Each prison cell is not connected, they run directly from the tower to each incarcerated inmate.

Decentralized Networks

• Like a multiplication of the centralized network
• There are many hubs; each with its own dependent nodes (branches)
• "Communication generally travels unidirectionally...from the central trunks to the radial leaves."^[6]
• Most popular network of the modern era

Distributed Networks

Protocol Layers

1. Application Layer

• Responsible for the content in the transaction

2. Transport Layer

• Responsible for making sure that information is received correctly

3. Internet Layer

• Responsible for the actual movement of data

4. Link Layer

• Technology-specific protocol that must enclose any data transfer

Transmission Control Protocol

• In the transport layer, there is a protocol called the transmission control protocol that creates a virtual circuit between the sender and receiver to regulate the flow of information
• This 3-Step Circuit is like the Shannon-Weaver Model of Communication (commonly referred to as the sender/receiver model) whereby a sender sends a message, the recipient receives it and sends a message back to the sender who subsequently receives the new message^[7]

Internet Protocol

• IP works in conjunction with TCP and transfers small packets of data (called "datagrams") from the sender to the receiver. However, it does not wait to make sure the receiver gets the message or that the message goes through properly. IP simply just shoots datagrams to rely information to a receiver.
• IP is responsible for:

1. Routing

• Choosing paths so it can move data across a network and passing datagrams from computer to computer (“hopping”) to get to the receiver

2. Fragmentation

• Fragmenting the datagram into smaller pieces to send to the receiver to be re-assembled (different networks in different countries have size limits as to how large datagrams can be)
• A header is attached to each packet of information that includes information on where the information came from and who it is supposed to go to

Domain Name System

• First universal addressing system which translates Internet addresses from names to numbers (called “resolutions”). It is like an index where anything must register and be somewhere in the system in order for it to exist.
• In order to find out the resolution for a domain name address, one must start with the root server which can break it down another name server which breaks it down to another name server and so on and so forth until the response is a numerical address for the domain name. This is a decentralized, hierarchal system where each name server can only provide information about the level below it.

• Protocol needs both TCP/IP and DNS to function although they are complete binary opposites. TCP/IP is more of a distributed network whereby it distributes control into autonomous agents, whereas DNS is more hierarchal and decentralized.

Discussion Questions

1. Could the example of Cloud Computing be an example of a centralized network? 2. In what ways can you see centralized, decentralized and distributed networks in our society?

Further Readings

• Foucault: Sovereign vs. Disciplinary Power: http://theoryrocks101b.blogspot.com/2009/03/foucault-sovereign-v-disciplinary-power.html
• Foucault: http://foucaultacrossthedisciplines.blogspot.com/2007/02/modern-power-in-history-of-sexuality.html
• Deleuze’s Postscript on the Societies of Control: https://files.nyu.edu/dnm232/public/deleuze_postcript.pdf
• Cloud Computing: The Layperson’s Guide to Distributed Networks: http://mashable.com/2011/08/25/cloud-computing-guide

Notes and References

1. ↑ Galloway, A. (2004) Protocol. (MIT Press, Cambridge MA) P3
2. ↑ Galloway, A. (2004) Protocol. (MIT Press, Cambridge MA) P3
3. ↑ Tutzauer, F., & Elbirt, B. (2009). Entropy-Based Centralization and its Sampling Distribution in Directed Communication Networks. Communication Monographs, 76(3), 351-375. doi:10.1080/03637750903074727
4. ↑ Lim, M. (2007). Inverted-Panopticism: The Use of Mobile Technologies in Surveillance. Conference Papers -- International Communication Association, 1-23. Retrieved from EBSCOhost.
5. ↑ Galloway, A. (2004) Protocol. (MIT Press, Cambridge MA) P31
6. ↑ Galloway, A. (2004) Protocol. (MIT Press, Cambridge MA) P37
7. ↑ http://www.aber.ac.uk/media/Documents/short/trans.html

Chapter 2: Form

Chapter Summary

• Galloway moves from the technical ideologies of protocol in Chapter 1, to focus more on the social implications of the form of the internet. He goes on to analyze protocol as an entire formal apparatus, and not simply “rules governing the exchange or transmission of data electronically between devices” ^[8], in other words, evaluating the internet as more than just its technical make-up, and rather as an interactive apparatus of communication.
• Galloway first compares the idealized emancipatory characteristics of modern media to the repressive nature of traditional media through a Marxist perspective. Galloway discusses the importance of web continuity, which creates a sense of fluidity to the users online experience, which correlates to Donna Haraway’s theory of the “cyborg”. The chapter concludes with an overview of the immaterial components that are essential to the protocol's formal relations.

Social Implications of the Internet

• Chapter two moves away from the technical aspects of the Internet and protocol, and focuses more on how the Internet affects society. Form is the term that Galloway uses to describe how the internet works not on a technical level, but as an abstract ideal that real things participate in, it is the essential nature of a thing. Put simply, how the Internet functions as a medium.
• Previous communication mediums, such as the radio, were decidedly one way devices. Communication theorist, Bertolt Brecht, was critical of the radio for failing to form a true communication network. In his critique of the radio, he writes "The radio is one sided when it should be two, it is purely an apparatus for distribution… Change it from distribution to communication, and the radio would be the finest possible communication apparatus in public life, a vast network of pipes… to receive as well as transmit"^[9] In pointing out the flaws of the radio, Brecht has unknowingly described the basic form of the Internet, as a vast network capable of receiving and transmitting information. This debate between one-way and two-way communication devices leads to what Galloway calls "a Marxist theory of media based on form" ^[10]

Social Implications: a Marxist Perspective

• A Marxist theory on media applies to the radio because the ruling class ideas are transmitted through radio waves to the labour class, also known as the proletariat. The labour class lacks the ability to produce, and therefore can only consume what the ruling class provides for them. In terms of media, specifically the radio, the ruling class ideologies become accepted by the labour class, forming hegemony. This conforms with Marx’s idea of a superstructure and base [1], which describes the division of labour in a society, with the base as the working class, and the superstructure as the ruling class.
• A Marxist theory on the Internet must be looked at differently because it is a two-way communication medium, and is suggested in Marx’s theory of mediation[2]. Mediation “refers to the reconciliation of two opposing forces within a society, by a mediating object… Within media studies, the central mediating factor of a given culture is the medium of communication itself”^[11] Ex. The Internet. So, from a Marxist perspective, the Internet can be seen as a mediating factor, because it allows the ruling class and the labour class to receive and transmit information to one another, where before only the ruling class had the ability to transmit.

Social Implications: The Internet as Emancipatory Media

• Emancipation, or the act of being freed, is limited to the medium of internet because its form allows for everyone to participate in the production of media, as long as they have access. Older communication mediums, such as, television, radio and film, can be seen as repressive media because they are limited to one-way communication. Influenced by Brecht’s desire for a two-way radio, theorist Hans Magnus Enzensberger, describes how radio can be seen as “political prohibition”^[12]. The radio is a repressive media, and thus prohibits any political interaction, because it can only be used to receive information, not transmit. The Internet can be viewed as emancipatory media because it grants the user the ability to receive and transmit, allowing for the opinions of the previously repressed to be voiced in a public forum, also known as a public sphere. No longer is media production in the hands of main stream media, because the Internet allows every user to become a producer/consumer, also known as a "prosumer".
• Enzensberger shows how emancipatory media, an idealized form of the internet, is different from the oppressive media using this chart:

Enzensberger's chart

Repressive use of media	Emancipatory use of media
- Centrally controlled program	- Decentralized program
- One transmitter, many receivers	- Each receiver a potential transmitter
- Immobilization of isolated individuals	- Mobilization of the masses
- Passive consumer behavior	- Interaction of those involved, feedback
- Depoliticization	- A political learning process
- Production by specialists	- Collective production
- Control by property owners or bureaucracy	- Social control by self-organization

Cybernetics and Associative Indexing

• Galloway makes the point of paying respect to who he calls two of the most important thinkers in the history of computers and electronic media; Norbert Wiener and Vannevar Bush. Wiener is responsible for the theory of dynamic systems (cybernetics) and Bush advocated the transparency of technology and the idea of associative indexing.
• Cybernetics is defined as “the study of information processing, feedback, and control in communication systems” ^[13]. The theory began with the simple idea of feedback. Feedback exists when a process has both a beginning and ending point wherein the system can receive new input with the potential to impact the outcome of the process. Cybernetics can be used in any system for quality assurance and is used in communication “as the link connecting the separate parts of any system”^[14]. It virtues “balance, self-regulation, circularity, and control”^[15] and therefore is an important component regarding the emancipatory use of media. (see Enzensberger's comparison chart)
• Galloway relates cybernetics to Donna Haraway's idea of the "cyborg". Haraway defines a cyborg as "a cybernetic organism, a hybrid of machine and organism, a creature of social reality as well as a creature of fiction". ^[16] Essentially, Haraway's essay is advocating for the loss of binary oppositions and the incorporation of the idea of the cyborg in order to reduce social inequalities. A link to her essay, "A Manifesto for Cyborgs: Science, Technology, and Socialist Feminism in the 1980s" can be found here.
• Bush's 1945 essay "As We May Think" analyzes the flaws of traditional indexing methods. He notes that when data is placed in storage it is filed alphabetically, numerically or traced down from subclass to subclass. He argues that the human mind does not operate in this manner, instead "it operates by association. With one item in its grasp, it snaps instantly to the next that is suggested by the association of thoughts, in accordance with some intricate web of trails carried by the cells of the brain".^[17] Bush is responsible for the idea of "Memex", a proposed desk-like-device with the capability of storing all of one's books, records and communications with the ability to quickly access anything stored with ease. He explains that the device would use a keyboard and a set of buttons and levers to access the data that would be imprinted on microfilm and stored in the memex. The memex "is an enlarged intimate supplement"^[18] to a human's memory and works as "a relational database of records operating on the principle of associative, rather than hierarchical indexing" ^[19]. Again, Haraway's idea of the cyborg can be applied.

Here is one interpretation of Bush's Memex idea:

• Galloway's reference to Wiener and Bush is an attempt to illustrate their contribution to the tradition of Marxist media theory introduced by Brecht. Bush's idea of meshworks offers a "profound alternative to the centralized, hierarchical power in place under capital relations"^[20] and Wiener's cybernetics proves to be more than relevant regarding the potential emancipatory use of the media.

Form and Continuity

• Galloway contrasts the ideas of the Web as a free, structureless network and as a rhizomatic system. He shows the contradicting nature of both statements yet the validity of them as well. He writes: "The project of this book is to show that protocol is in fact both poles of this machinic movement, territorializing structure and anarchical distribution"^[21]. Therefore, one cannot simply view the Internet as structureless because it possesses key characteristics of the rhizome: "the ability of any node to be connected to any other node, the rule of multiplicity, the ability to splinter off or graft on at any point"^[22] and so forth.
• The Internet is not narrative-based or time-based yet it "enthralls users, dragging them in, as television and cinema did before it"^[23]. Here, Galloway takes the idea of continuity from film theory and applies it to the Internet. Continuity is employed to ensure a seemingly natural flow on the Internet. It is a means by which webmasters create a fluid and pleasurable experience for users in a hidden fashion. "The goal of continuity is to make the Internet as intuitive as possible"^[24] and as Berners-Lee writes, "the job of computers and networks is to get out of the way, to not be seen....The technology should be transparent, so we interact with it intuitively"^[25]. The following is a list of some techniques of continuity outlined in this chapter:
  • Conceal the source: "Protocol is simply a wrapper. It must conceal its own innards"^[26]. Webmasters use programming languages that follow the rules of continuity that are made invisible at the moment the code is compiled. Much like Marx's idea of commodity fetishism, where "beliefs about the material products of labour - things - are a substitute for an understanding of the (unequal and alienating) social relations which made their production possible"^[27], the concept of concealing the source is simply hiding the effort put in place to create the product. The two examples used by Galloway to conceal the source are HTML (see below) and IP addresses. IP addresses are simply numerical addresses given for each location on the Internet.
  • Eliminate dead links: Any dead link (or "404 error") should be avoided and eliminated at all costs. If something is pointed to, it should exist to ensure the continuous and smooth flow of the Internet. Otherwise, users are often faced with this sort or error message.
  • Eliminate no links: "There can be no dead ends on the Internet"^[28]. Each page must go somewhere else and continue the notion of infinite movement, even if it simply means the incorporation of a "Back" button.
  • Green means go: "When creating links on a Web page, representation should convey meaning"^[29]. In other words, the language used should not reinforce to the user that they are browsing the Internet. Instead, the simple representation of something should in itself encourage the user to interact with it if need be. "One must never use the phrase "click here to visit..." Instead, for optimal continuity, one should inject the meaning of the link directly into its form".^[30]
  • True identity: "A link's name and its address must correspond"^[31]. Much like a link must point to somewhere, the description of said link must correspond with its target.
  • Remove barriers: Reduce the number of "clicks" a user must make to get to their destination. More time spent on distractions (splash pages, tables of contents, introductory pages) prevents the fluidity of the user experience.
  • Continuity between media types: All differentiation between different types of media must be eliminated. The page must seem like a complete package; "the user must not be able to tell where one image begins and another ends, or where text ends and an image begins"^[32].
  • Prohibition against low resolution: All graphics should be at the highest resolution possible because using low resolution images reveals the "code" of the image (in this sense, the pixels of an image can be seen as the code).
  • Highest speed possible: "Speed means continuity...it helps perpetuate the illusion that personal movement on the Net is unmediated, that the computer is a natural extension of the user's own body"^[33]. Speed, therefore, is essential in creating the cyborg-like relationship between an Internet user and the hardware involved.
  • Prohibition on crashes: "Computers must never crash...during a crash, the computer changes from being passive to being active"^[34].
  • Prohibition on dead media: All media that is no longer relevant has no place on the Internet. Outdated technology, whether it be hardware, a form of computer language or a media format, means discontinuity.
  • Eliminate mediation: The role of continuity is to ensure the most natural cyborg experience possible. In this sense, "all traces of the medium should be hidden"^[35]. New technologies focused on voice recognition and touch screen interfaces are becoming more and more popular.
  • Feedback loops: The Internet is a network that enables many-to-many communication which should be promoted. Web pages should offer a feedback system, whether it be through input forums, chat rooms or email responses to ensure effective continuity.
  • Anonymous but descriptive: Foucault's idea of "biopower" is employed to interpret material objects as information. Each movement on the Internet is recorded yet the information gathered is demographic information rather than names and identities. "On the Internet there is no reason to know the name of a particular user...the clustering of descriptive information around a specific user becomes sufficient to explain the identity of that user".^[36]

Immaterial Software

• The protocol and form of the internet are made possible because of the physical part of computers and internet networks that make up its hardware. Hardware, such as keyboards, monitors, mice, modems and so on, are important pieces of hardware that allow the internet a space to function, but are less important to the make-up of the internet and computer that we cannot see, known as immaterial software. According to Galloway, immaterial software consists of Record, Objects, Protocol, Browser, HTML, and Fonts.

1.Record:

• The record has its roots in the ability of physical objects to store information, which, in the case of hardware would be the hard drive. However, a record is not concerned with the device that stores it, but rather the information that makes up the record. A record is concerned with the symbolic, for instance, the alphabet and language have meaning, and when written, it is a record of that meaning ^[37].

2.Object:

• A record is one form of an object, which can be a digital picture, digital film, computer games, and web sites. Objects are loaded using record devices, such as a hard drive or thumb drive, and are displayed on virtuation devices, such as monitors and displays. Objects help make information readable to net users.

3.Protocol:

• "Protocol is the reason that Internet works and performs work, which can be defined as a set of instructions for the compilation and interaction of objects" ^[38]. Objects require protocol to govern their assemblage, and protocol is a description language for objects. Protocol is essential to internet form because they govern the objects that make reading information possible through stored object records. Protocol explained:

4.Browser:

• Internet browsers are “windows style” programs, such as Internet explorer and Safari, that take protocol, objects, and records, and make them visual and understandable to the user. It is, as Galloway says, an “apparatus to hide an apparatus”^[39]. Just as Hollywood uses continuity editing to create a concealed, fluid flow of visuals, browsers hide protocols, objects and records to make the internet experience one of fluidity and coherence for the user.

5. HTML:

• HTML stands for “Hypertext Markup Language”^[40] and is the language that the computer understands, and then visualizes it in a way that the operator can understand. HTML is text only, yet when visualized it can create different fonts, tables, paragraphs, headings, and so on. . HTML is essential for internet form for two reasons, 1, plain text is the quickest type of data to be downloaded, and 2, a standard computer language is essential for data interchange between computers ^[41]

6.Fonts:

• Just like HTML, different fonts we perceive as a user are not how they would appear to the computer. They are merely a set of instructions that the computer understands and then visualizes on screen to be what the user understands as a variation in print type.

Suggested Further Readings

1. Bertolt Brecht, "The Radio as an Apparatus of Communication," inVideo Culture, ed. John Hanhardt (Layton, UT: Peregrine Smith Books, 1986), p.53.
2. Hans Magnus Enzensberger, "Constituents of a Theory of the Media," in Video Culture, ed.John Hanhardt (Layton, UT: Peregrine Smith Books, 1986), p.98.
3. Vannevar Bush, "As We May Think", in "Reading Digital Culture", ed. David Trend (USA: Blackwell, 2001), p.9.
4. Donna Haraway, "A Manifesto for Cyborgs", in "Reading Digital Culture", ed. David Trend (USA: Blackwell, 2001), p.28.

Notes and References

1. ↑ Galloway, A. (2004) Protocol. (MIT Press, Cambridge MA) P3
2. ↑ Galloway, A. (2004) Protocol. (MIT Press, Cambridge MA) P3
3. ↑ Tutzauer, F., & Elbirt, B. (2009). Entropy-Based Centralization and its Sampling Distribution in Directed Communication Networks. Communication Monographs, 76(3), 351-375. doi:10.1080/03637750903074727
4. ↑ Lim, M. (2007). Inverted-Panopticism: The Use of Mobile Technologies in Surveillance. Conference Papers -- International Communication Association, 1-23. Retrieved from EBSCOhost.
5. ↑ Galloway, A. (2004) Protocol. (MIT Press, Cambridge MA) P31
6. ↑ Galloway, A. (2004) Protocol. (MIT Press, Cambridge MA) P37
7. ↑ http://www.aber.ac.uk/media/Documents/short/trans.html
8. ↑ http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/protocol
9. ↑ Galloway, A. (2004) Protocol. (MIT Press, Cambridge MA) P55
10. ↑ Galloway, A. (2004) Protocol. (MIT Press, Cambridge MA) P56
11. ↑ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediation_(Marxist_theory_and_media_studies)
12. ↑ Galloway, A. (2004) Protocol. (MIT Press, Cambridge MA) P56
13. ↑ Griffin, Em. "Mapping the Territory." A first look at communication theory. 7. ed. Boston: Mcgraw-Hill Higher Education, 2008. 43. Print.
14. ↑ Griffin, Em. "Mapping the Territory." A first look at communication theory. 7. ed. Boston: Mcgraw-Hill Higher Education, 2008. 43. Print.
15. ↑ Galloway, A. (2004) Protocol. (MIT Press, Cambridge MA) P59
16. ↑ Trend, David, and Donna Haraway. "A Manifesto for Cyborgs: Science, Technology, and Socialist Feminism in the 1980s." Reading digital culture. USA: Blackwell, 2001. 28. Print.
17. ↑ Trend, David, and Vannevar Bush. "As We May Think." Reading digital culture. USA: Blackwell, 2001. 10. Print.
18. ↑ Trend, David, and Vannevar Bush. "As We May Think." Reading digital culture. USA: Blackwell, 2001. 11. Print.
19. ↑ Galloway, A. (2004) Protocol. (MIT Press, Cambridge MA) P60
20. ↑ Galloway, A. (2004) Protocol. (MIT Press, Cambridge MA) P60
21. ↑ Galloway, A. (2004) Protocol. (MIT Press, Cambridge MA) P64
22. ↑ Galloway, A. (2004) Protocol. (MIT Press, Cambridge MA) P61
23. ↑ Galloway, A. (2004) Protocol. (MIT Press, Cambridge MA) P60
24. ↑ Galloway, A. (2004) Protocol. (MIT Press, Cambridge MA) P68
25. ↑ Galloway, A. (2004) Protocol. (MIT Press, Cambridge MA) P65
26. ↑ Galloway, A. (2004) Protocol. (MIT Press, Cambridge MA) P65
27. ↑ Lury, Celia. "Exchanging Things: The Economy and Culture." Consumer culture. 2nd ed. New Jersey: Rutgers University Press, 2011. 39. Print.
28. ↑ Galloway, A. (2004) Protocol. (MIT Press, Cambridge MA) P66
29. ↑ Galloway, A. (2004) Protocol. (MIT Press, Cambridge MA) P66
30. ↑ Galloway, A. (2004) Protocol. (MIT Press, Cambridge MA) P66
31. ↑ Galloway, A. (2004) Protocol. (MIT Press, Cambridge MA) P66
32. ↑ Galloway, A. (2004) Protocol. (MIT Press, Cambridge MA) P67
33. ↑ Galloway, A. (2004) Protocol. (MIT Press, Cambridge MA) P67
34. ↑ Galloway, A. (2004) Protocol. (MIT Press, Cambridge MA) P67
35. ↑ Galloway, A. (2004) Protocol. (MIT Press, Cambridge MA) P68
36. ↑ Galloway, A. (2004) Protocol. (MIT Press, Cambridge MA) P69
37. ↑ Galloway, A. (2004) Protocol. (MIT Press, Cambridge, MA) P72
38. ↑ Galloway, A (2004) Protocol. (MIT Press, Cambridge, MA) P75
39. ↑ Galloway, A. (2004) Protocol. (MIT Press, Cambridge, MA) P75
40. ↑ http://www.ecommerce-web-hosting-guide.com/what-does-html-stand-for.html
41. ↑ Galloway, A. (2004) Protocol. (MIT Press, Cambridge, MA) P77

Chapter 3

=Chapter 4 Institutionalization

Chapter 5

Chapter 6

Chapter 7

Chapter 8